俺的GMAT家

女王的肥皂

Neotropical coastal mangrove forests are usually “zonal,” with certain mangrove species found predominantly in the seaward portion of the habitat and other mangrove species on the more landward portions of the coast. The earliest research on mangrove forests produced descriptions of species distribution from shore to land, without exploring the causes of the distributions.
The idea that zonation is caused by plant succession was first expressed by J. H. Davis in a study of Florida mangrove forests. According to Davis’ scheme, the shoreline is being extended in a seaward direction because of the “land-building” role of mangroves, which, by trapping sediments over time, extend the shore. As a habitat gradually becomes more inland as the shore extends, the “land-building” species are replaced. This continuous process of accretion and succession would be interrupted only by hurricanes or storm flushings.
Recently the universal application of Davis’ succession paradigm has been challenged. It appears that in areas where weak currents and weak tidal energies allow the accumulation of sediments, mangroves will follow land formation and accelerate the rate of soil accretion; succession will proceed according to Davis’ scheme. But on stable coastlines, the distribution of mangrove species results in other patterns of zonation; “land building” does not occur.
To find a principle that explains the various distribution patterns, several researchers have looked to salinity and its effects on mangrove. While mangroves can develop in fresh water, they can also thrive in salinities as high as 2.5 times that of seawater. However, those mangrove species found in freshwater habitats do well only in the absence of competition, thus suggesting that salinity tolerance is a critical factor in competitive success among mangrove species. Research suggests that mangroves will normally dominate highly saline regions, although not because they require salt. Rather, they are metabolically efficient (and hence grow well) in portions of an environment whose high salinity excludes plants adapted to lower salinities. Tides create different degrees of salinity along a coastline. The characteristic mangrove species of each zone should exhibit a higher metabolic efficiency at that salinity than will any potential invader, including other species of mangrove.

第一段，就是mangrove 分布是zonal 的， 早期的研究描述了这点，但是没有说原因。
第二段，Davis 认为这个zonal pattern 是因为 mangrove 参与 landbuilding
第三段，就是castaline 稳定的时候，mangrove 就不按照 Davis 的解释，mangrove 也没有参与land building.
第四段，最新一种解释就会，mangroves' salinity tolerence. 在某个领域，某种mangrove 能代谢，但是其他植物就是怕这个salinity.




253. The primary of the purpose of the passage is to
(A) refute the idea that the zonation exhibited in mangrove forests is caused by adaptation to salinity
(B) describe the pattern of zonation typically found in Florida mangrove forests
(C) argue that Davis’ succession paradigm cannot be successfully applied to Florida mangrove forests
(D) discuss hypotheses that attempt to explain the zonation of coastal mangrove forests
(E) establish that plants that do well in saline forest environments require salt to achieve maximum metabolic efficiency


254. According to the passage, the earliest research on mangrove forest produced which of the following?
(A) Data that implied random patterns of mangrove species distribution
(B) Descriptions of species distributions suggesting zonation
(C) Descriptions of the development of mangrove forests over time
(D) Reclassification of species formerly thought to be identical
(E) Data that confirmed the “land-building” role of mangroves


255. It can be inferred from the passage that Davis’ paradigm does NOT apply to which of the following?
(A) The shoreline of Florida mangrove forests first studies by Davis
(B) A shoreline in an area with weak currents
(C) A shoreline in an area with weak tidal energy
(D) A shoreline extended by “land-building” species of mangrove
(E) A shoreline in which few sediments can accumulate


256. Information in the passage indicates that the author would most probably regard which of following statements as INCORRECT?
(A) Coastal mangrove forests are usually zonal.
(B) Hurricanes interrupt the process of accretion and succession that extends existing shorelines.
(C) Species of plants that thrive in a saline habitat require salt to flourish.
(D) Plants with the highest metabolic efficiency in a given habitat tend to exclude other plants from that habitat.
(E) Shoreline in areas with weak currents and tides are more likely to be extended through the process of accumulation of sediment than are shorelines with strong currents and tides.

Neotropical (Of or designating the biogeographic region stretching southward from the Tropic of Cancer (tropic of cancer: n.北回归线) and including southern Mexico, Central and South America, and the West Indies) coastal mangrove forests are usually “zonal,” with certain mangrove species found predominantly in the seaward portion of the habitat and other mangrove species on the more landward portions of the coast. The earliest research on mangrove forests produced descriptions of species distribution from shore to land, without exploring the causes of the distributions.
The idea that zonation is caused by plant succession (plant succession: 植物演替; 植生继续) was first expressed by J. H. Davis in a study of Florida mangrove forests. According to Davis’ scheme, the shoreline is being extended in a seaward direction because of the “land-building” role of mangroves, which, by trapping sediments over time, extend the shore. As a habitat gradually becomes more inland as the shore extends, the “land-building” species are replaced. This continuous process of accretion and succession would be interrupted only by hurricanes or storm flushings.
Recently the universal application of Davis’ succession paradigm has been challenged. It appears that in areas where weak currents and weak tidal energies allow the accumulation of sediments, mangroves will follow land formation and accelerate the rate of soil accretion; succession will proceed according to Davis’ scheme. But on stable coastlines, the distribution of mangrove species results in other patterns of zonation; “land building” does not occur.
To find a principle that explains the various distribution patterns, several researchers have looked to salinity and its effects on mangrove. While mangroves can develop in fresh water, they can also thrive in salinities as high as 2.5 times that of seawater. However, those mangrove species found in freshwater habitats do well only in the absence of competition, thus suggesting that salinity tolerance is a critical factor in competitive success among mangrove species. Research suggests that mangroves will normally dominate highly saline regions, although not because they require salt. Rather, they are metabolically efficient (and hence grow well) in portions of an environment whose high salinity excludes plants adapted to lower salinities. Tides create different degrees of salinity along a coastline. The characteristic mangrove species of each zone should exhibit a higher metabolic efficiency at that salinity than will any potential invader, including other species of mangrove.
253.The primary of the purpose of the passage is to

(A) refute the idea that the zonation exhibited in mangrove forests is caused by adaptation to salinity

(B) describe the pattern of zonation typically found in Florida mangrove forests

(C) argue that Davis’ succession paradigm cannot be successfully applied to Florida mangrove forests

(D) discuss hypotheses that attempt to explain the zonation of coastal mangrove forests（D）

(E) establish that plants that do well in saline forest environments require salt to achieve maximum metabolic efficiency

254.According to the passage, the earliest research on mangrove forest produced which of the following?

(A) Data that implied random patterns of mangrove species distribution

(B) Descriptions of species distributions suggesting zonation

(C) Descriptions of the development of mangrove forests over time

(D) Reclassification of species formerly thought to be identical（B）

(E) Data that confirmed the “land-building” role of mangroves

255.It can be inferred from the passage that Davis’ paradigm does NOT apply to which of the following?

(A) The shoreline of Florida mangrove forests first studies by Davis

(B) A shoreline in an area with weak currents

(C) A shoreline in an area with weak tidal energy

(D) A shoreline extended by “land-building” species of mangrove（E）

(E) A shoreline in which few sediments can accumulate

256.Information in the passage indicates that the author would most probably regard which of following statements as INCORRECT?

(A) Coastal mangrove forests are usually zonal.

(B) Hurricanes interrupt the process of accretion and succession that extends existing shorelines.

(C) Species of plants that thrive in a saline habitat require salt to flourish.

(D) Plants with the highest metabolic efficiency in a given habitat tend to exclude other plants from that habitat.（C）

(E) Shoreline in areas with weak currents and tides are more likely to be extended through the process of accumulation of sediment than are shorelines with strong currents and tides.

女王的肥皂

Modern manufacturers, who need reliable sources of materials and technologically advanced components to operate profitably, face an increasingly difficult choice between owning the producers of these items (a practice known as backward integration) and buying from independent producers. Manufacturers who integrate may reap short-term rewards, but they often restrict their future capacity for innovative product development.
Backward integration removes the need for some purchasing and marketing functions, centralizes overhead, and permits manufacturers to eliminate duplicated efforts in research and development. Where components are commodities (ferrous metals or petroleum, for example), backward integration almost certainly boosts profits. Nevertheless, because product innovation means adopting the most technologically advanced and cost-effective ways of making components, backward integration may entail a serious risk for a technologically active company—for example, a producer of sophisticated consumer electronics.
A company that decides to make rather than buy important parts can lock itself into an outdated technology. Independent suppliers may be unwilling to share innovations with assemblers with whom they are competing. Moreover, when an assembler sets out to master the technology of producing advanced components, the resulting demands on its resources may compromise its ability to assemble these components successfully into end products. Long-term contracts with suppliers can achieve many of the same cost benefits as backward integration without compromising a company’s ability to innovate.
However, moving away from backward integration is not a complete solution either. Developing innovative technologies requires independent suppliers of components to invest huge sums in research and development. The resulting low profit margins on the sale of components threaten the long-term financial stability of these firms. Because the ability of end-product assemblers to respond to market opportunities depends heavily on suppliers of components, assemblers are often forced to integrate by purchasing the suppliers of components just to keep their suppliers in business.

第一段，采用 backward ingereation, 可以取得短期好处，但是限制了产品的创新。
第二段，采用backward ingeration具体的坏处是，限制自己在outdated technology, can not share innovation with ,,; 而且一旦掌握最新的component 技术，这些企业就想只生产component,而不是产品了。
第三段，但是 撇着supplier 不管，让他们自己研发，长期来看又有财务困难，所以 assmblers 又不的不买suppliers, 以保证他们正常运行。

等等，我像是把文章结构看错了。文章开头说的是maufactures 面临着一个困境。第二段说的是 backward integration 对assembler 的不好，第三段说什么？就是为什么assemblers 为什么又要 carry out backward integration. 这样才能，应和了文章开头所说的， maufacutres 面临着困境。我把文章看分裂了。

错误 259 260 错这么多？？？

257. According to the passage, all of the following are benefits associated with backward integration EXCEPT:
(A) improvement in the management of overhead expenses
(B) enhancement of profit margins on sales of components
(C) simplification of purchasing and marketing operations
(D) reliability of a source of necessary components
(E) elimination of unnecessary research efforts
BD 到底该怎选

258. According to passage, when an assembler buys a firm that makes some important component of the end product that the assembler produces, independent suppliers of the same component may
(A) withhold technological innovations from the assembler
(B) experience improved profit margins on sales of their products
(C) lower their prices to protect themselves from competition
(D) suffer financial difficulties and go out of business
(E) stop developing new versions of the component


259. Which of the following best describes the way the last paragraph functions in the context of the passage?
(A) The last in a series of arguments supporting the central argument of the passage is presented.
(B) A viewpoint is presented which qualifies one presented earlier in the passage.
(C) Evidence is presented in support of the argument developed in the preceding paragraph.
(D) Questions arising from the earlier discussion are identified as points of departure for further study of the topic.
(E) A specific example is presented to illustrate the main elements of argument presented in the earlier paragraphs.
文章结构

260. According to the passage, which of the following relationships between profits and investments in research and development holds true for producers of technologically advanced components?
(A) Modest investments are required and the profit margins on component sales are low.
(B) Modest investments are required but the profit margins on component sales are quite high.
(C) Despite the huge investments that are required, the profit margins on components sales are high.
(D) Because huge investments are required, the profit margins on component sales are low.
(E) Long-term contractual relationships with purchasers of components ensure a high ratio of profits to investment costs.
我也奇怪为什么这个会做错呢，难道饿了就瞎选。

Modern manufacturers, who need reliable sources of materials and technologically advanced components to operate profitably, face an increasingly difficult choice between owning the producers of these items (a practice known as backward integration (backward integration: 后向合并)) and buying from independent producers. Manufacturers who integrate may reap short-term rewards, but they often restrict their future capacity for (capacity for: ...的能力) innovative product development.
Backward integration removes the need for some purchasing and marketing functions, centralizes overhead, and permits manufacturers to eliminate duplicated efforts in research and development. Where components are commodities (ferrous metals or petroleum, for example), backward integration almost certainly boosts profits. Nevertheless, because product innovation means adopting the most technologically advanced and cost-effective ways of making components, backward integration may entail a serious risk for a technologically active company—for example, a producer of sophisticated consumer electronics.
A company that decides to make rather than buy important parts can lock itself into an outdated technology. Independent suppliers may be unwilling to share innovations with assemblers with whom they are competing. Moreover, when an assembler sets out to master the technology of producing advanced components, the resulting demands on its resources may compromise its ability to assemble these components successfully into end products. Long-term contracts with suppliers can achieve many of the same cost benefits as backward integration without compromising a company’s ability to innovate.
However, moving away from backward integration is not a complete solution either. Developing innovative technologies requires independent suppliers of components to invest huge sums in research and development. The resulting low profit margins on the sale of components threaten the long-term financial stability of these firms. Because the ability of end-product assemblers to respond to market opportunities depends heavily on suppliers of components, assemblers are often forced to integrate by purchasing the suppliers of components just to keep their suppliers in business.
257.According to the passage, all of the following are benefits associated with backward integration EXCEPT:

(A) improvement in the management of overhead expenses

(B) enhancement of profit margins on sales of components

(C) simplification of purchasing and marketing operations

(D) reliability of a source of necessary components（B）

(E) elimination of unnecessary research efforts

258.According to passage, when an assembler buys a firm that makes some important component of the end product that the assembler produces, independent suppliers of the same component may

(A) withhold technological innovations from the assembler

(B) experience improved profit margins on sales of their products

(C) lower their prices to protect themselves from competition

(D) suffer financial difficulties and go out of business（A）

(E) stop developing new versions of the component

259.Which of the following best describes the way the last paragraph functions in the context of the passage?

(A) The last in a series of arguments supporting the central argument of the passage is presented.

(B) A viewpoint is presented which qualifies one presented earlier in the passage.

(C) Evidence is presented in support of the argument developed in the preceding paragraph.

(D) Questions arising from the earlier discussion are identified as points of departure for further study of the topic.（B）

(E) A specific example is presented to illustrate the main elements of argument presented in the earlier paragraphs.

260.According to the passage, which of the following relationships between profits and investments in research and development holds true for producers of technologically advanced components?

(A) Modest investments are required and the profit margins on component sales are low.

(B) Modest investments are required but the profit margins on component sales are quite high.

(C) Despite the huge investments that are required, the profit margins on components sales are high.

(D) Because huge investments are required, the profit margins on component sales are low.（D）

(E) Long-term contractual relationships with purchasers of components ensure a high ratio of profits to investment costs.

女王的肥皂

Homeostasis, an animal’s maintenance of certain internal variables within an acceptable range, particularly in extreme physical environments, has long interested biologists. The desert rat and the camel in the most water-deprived environments, and marine vertebrates in an all-water environment, encounter the same regulatory problem: maintaining adequate internal fluid balance.
For desert rats and camels, the problem is conservation of water in an environment where standing water is nonexistent, temperature is high, and humidity is low. Despite these handicaps, desert rats are able to maintain the osmotic pressure of their blood, as well as their total body-water content, at approximately the same levels as other rats. One countermeasure is behavioral: these rats stay in burrows during the hot part of the day, thus avoiding loss of fluid through panting or sweating, which are regulatory mechanisms for maintaining internal body temperature by evaporative cooling. Also, desert rats’ kidneys can excrete a urine having twice as high a salt content as sea water.
Camels, on the other hand, rely more on simple endurance. They cannot store water, and their reliance on an entirely unexceptionalkidney results in a rate of water loss through renal function significantly higher than that of desert rats. As a result, camels must tolerate losses in body water of up to thirty percent of their body weight. Nevertheless, camels do rely on a special mechanism to keep water loss within a tolerable range: by seating and panting only when their body temperature exceeds that which would kill a human, they conserve internal water.
Marine vertebrates experience difficulty with their water balance because though there is no shortage of seawater to drink, they must drink a lot of it to maintain their internal fluid balance. But the excess salts from the seawater must be discharged somehow, and the kidneys of most marine vertebrates are unable to excrete a urine in which the salts are more concentrated than in seawater. Most of these animals have special salt-secreting organs outside the kidney that enable them to eliminate excess salt.

Homeostasis

第一段，沙漠中的老鼠，骆驼和海洋里的脊椎动物面临着同样的问题， 就是怎么保持体液的平衡， homeostasis.
第二段，沙漠中的老鼠
第三段， camel 就是干挨，但是他们只是在体内温度很杀人的情况下，才会 panting and seating.
第四段，就是 海洋脊椎动物用一个非kidney 的东西来排泄多余的salt.

没做题的情况下，我推定老鼠的kindney 是最强大的。

261. Which of the following most accurately states the purpose of the passage?
(A) To compare two different approaches to the study of homeostasis
(B) To summarize the findings of several studies regarding organisms’ maintenance of internal variables in extreme environments
(C) To argue for a particular hypothesis regarding various organisms’ conservation of water in desert environments
(D) To cite examples of how homeostasis is achieved by various organisms
(E) To defend a new theory regarding the maintenance of adequate fluid balance

BD 比较 不能算是 studies 的总结吧。

262. According to the passage, the camel maintains internal fluid balance in which of the following ways?
I. By behavioral avoidance of exposure to conditions that lead to fluid loss
II. By an ability to tolerate high body temperatures
III. By reliance on stored internal fluid supplies
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III


263. It can be inferred from the passage that some mechanisms that regulate internal body temperature, like sweating and panting, can lead to which of the following?
(A) A rise in the external body temperature
(B) A drop in the body’s internal fluid level
(C) A decrease in the osmotic pressure of the blood
(D) A decrease in the amount of renal water loss
(E) A decrease in the urine’s salt content


264. It can be inferred from the passage that the author characterizes the camel’s kidney as “entirely unexceptional” (line 24) primarily to emphasize that it
(A) functions much as the kidney of a rat functions
(B) does not aid the camel in coping with the exceptional water loss resulting from the extreme conditions of its environment
(C) does not enable the camel to excrete as much salt as do the kidneys of marine vertebrates
(D) is similar in structure to the kidneys of most mammals living in water-deprived environments
(E) requires the help of other organs in eliminating excess salt

Homeostasis, an animal’s maintenance of certain internal variables within an acceptable range, particularly in extreme physical environments, has long interested biologists. The desert rat and the camel in the most water-deprived environments, and marine vertebrates in an all-water environment, encounter the same regulatory problem: maintaining adequate internal fluid balance.
For desert rats and camels, the problem is conservation of water in an environment where standing water is nonexistent, temperature is high, and humidity is low. Despite these handicaps, desert rats are able to maintain the osmotic pressure of their blood, as well as their total body-water content, at approximately the same levels as other rats. One countermeasure is behavioral: these rats stay in burrows during the hot part of the day, thus avoiding loss of fluid through panting or sweating, which are regulatory mechanisms for maintaining internal body temperature by evaporative cooling (evaporative cooling: 蒸发冷却). Also, desert rats’ kidneys can excrete a urine having twice as high a salt content as sea water.
Camels, on the other hand, rely more on simple endurance. They cannot store water, and their reliance on an entirely unexceptional kidney results in a rate of water loss through renal function significantly higher than that of desert rats. As a result, camels must tolerate losses in body water of up to thirty percent of their body weight. Nevertheless, camels do rely on a special mechanism to keep water loss within a tolerable range: by seating and panting only when their body temperature exceeds that which would kill a human, they conserve internal water.
Marine vertebrates experience difficulty with their water balance because though there is no shortage of seawater to drink, they must drink a lot of it to maintain their internal fluid balance. But the excess salts from the seawater must be discharged somehow, and the kidneys of most marine vertebrates are unable to excrete a urine in which the salts are more concentrated than in seawater. Most of these animals have special salt-secreting organs outside the kidney that enable them to eliminate excess salt.
261.Which of the following most accurately states the purpose of the passage?

(A) To compare two different approaches to the study of homeostasis

(B) To summarize the findings of several studies regarding organisms’ maintenance of internal variables in extreme environments

(C) To argue for a particular hypothesis regarding various organisms’ conservation of water in desert environments

(D) To cite examples of how homeostasis is achieved by various organisms（D）

(E) To defend a new theory regarding the maintenance of adequate fluid balance

262.According to the passage, the camel maintains internal fluid balance in which of the following ways?

I.By behavioral avoidance of exposure to conditions that lead to fluid loss

II.By an ability to tolerate high body temperatures

III.By reliance on stored internal fluid supplies

(A) I only

(B) II only

(C) I and II only

(D) II and III only（B）

(E) I, II, and III

263.It can be inferred from the passage that some mechanisms that regulate internal body temperature, like sweating and panting, can lead to which of the following?

(A) A rise in the external body temperature

(B) A drop in the body’s internal fluid level

(C) A decrease in the osmotic pressure of the blood

(D) A decrease in the amount of renal water loss（B）

(E) A decrease in the urine’s salt content

264.It can be inferred from the passage that the author characterizes the camel’s kidney as “entirely unexceptional” (line 24) primarily to emphasize that it

(A) functions much as the kidney of a rat functions

(B) does not aid the camel in coping with the exceptional water loss resulting from the extreme conditions of its environment

(C) does not enable the camel to excrete as much salt as do the kidneys of marine vertebrates

(D) is similar in structure to the kidneys of most mammals living in water-deprived environments（B）

(E) requires the help of other organs in eliminating excess salt

女王的肥皂

In the seventeenth-century Florentine textile industry, women were employed primarily in low-paying, low-skill jobs. To explain this segregation of labor by gender, economists have relied on the usefultheory of human capital. According to this theory, investment in human capital—the acquisition of difficult job-related skills—generally benefits individuals by making them eligible to engage in well-paid occupations. Women’s role as child bearers, however, results in interruptions in their participation in the job market (as compared with men’s) and thus reduces their opportunities to acquire training for highly skilled work. In addition, the human capital theory explains why there was a high concentration of women workers in certain low-skill jobs, such as weaving, but not in others, such as combing or carding, by positing that because of their primary responsibility in child rearing women took occupations that could be carried out in the home.
There were, however, differences in pay scales that cannot be explained by the human capital theory. For example, male construction workers were paid significantly higher wage than female taffeta weavers. The wage difference between these two low-skill occupations stems from the segregation of labor by gender: because a limited number of occupations were open to women, there was a large supply of workers in their fields, and this “overcrowding” resulted in women receiving lower wages and men receiving higher wages.

又是 segregation of labor by gender, 这个应该是我见到的第三篇了。

第一段，这次解释 segregation of labor by gender 的理论是 human captial. 这个理论认为，妇女的生育阻止了妇女获得培训的机会。此外，因为妇女的主要职责是看孩子，所以她们会选那些可以带回家的工作。
第二段，作者用一个实例证明这里理论是不会的，并提出自己的主张，就是segregation of labor by gender 造成了women can obtain the equal right for all profession.

错误 267

265. The passage suggests that combing and carding differ from weaving in that combing and carding are
(A) low-skill jobs performed by primarily by women employees
(B) low-skill jobs that were not performed in the home
(C) low-skill jobs performed by both male and female employees
(D) high-skill jobs performed outside the home
(E) high-skill jobs performed by both male and female employees

266. Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the explanation provided by the human capital theory for women’s concentration in certain occupations in seventeenth-century Florence?
(A) Women were unlikely to work outside the home even in occupations whose house were flexible enough to allow women to accommodate domestic tasks as well as paid labor.
(B) Parents were less likely to teach occupational skills to their daughters than they were to their sons.
(C) Women’s participation in the Florentine paid labor force grew steadily throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
(D) The vast majority of female weavers in the Florentine wool industry had children.
(E) Few women worked as weavers in the Florentine silk industry, which was devoted to making cloths that required a high degree of skill to produce.
A 这个推理是很绕的。潜台词 和 segregation of labor 的愿意有关
To answer this question, examine the logic of the
explanation. How does the human capital theory
explain women’s concentration in certain
occupations? Th e theory says that women’s roles
in childbearing made it diffi cult for them to
acquire the skills needed in high-skill jobs.
Moreover, their role in child rearing made them
choose occupations that could be carried out at
home. Evidence against either of these points will
weaken the explanation


267. The author of the passage would be most likely to describe the explanation provided by the human capital theory for the high concentration of women in certain occupations in the seventeenth-century Florence textile industry as
(A) well founded though incomplete
(B) difficult to articulate
(C) plausible but poorly substantiated
(D) seriously flawed
(E) contrary to recent research
useful  我真没有注意到这里， 这些老外 这么这么细致呀。
In the seventeenth-century Florentine textile industry, women were employed primarily in low-paying, low-skill jobs. To explain this segregation of labor by gender, economists have relied on the useful theory of human capital (human capital: n. 人力资本). According to this theory, investment in human capital—the acquisition of difficult job-related skills—generally benefits individuals by making them eligible to engage in well-paid occupations. Women’s role as child bearers, however, results in interruptions in their participation in the job market (as compared with (as compared with: adv.与...比较) men’s) and thus reduces their opportunities to acquire training for highly skilled work. In addition, the human capital theory explains why there was a high concentration of women workers in certain low-skill jobs, such as weaving, but not in others, such as combing or carding, by positing that because of their primary responsibility in child rearing women took occupations that could be carried out in the home.
There were, however, differences in pay scales that cannot be explained by the human capital theory. For example, male construction workers were paid significantly higher wage than female taffeta weavers. The wage difference between these two low-skill occupations stems from the segregation of labor by gender: because a limited number of occupations were open to women, there was a large supply of workers in their fields, and this “overcrowding” resulted in women receiving lower wages and men receiving higher wages.
265.The passage suggests that combing and carding differ from weaving in that combing and carding are

(A) low-skill jobs performed by primarily by women employees

(B) low-skill jobs that were not performed in the home

(C) low-skill jobs performed by both male and female employees

(D) high-skill jobs performed outside the home（B）

(E) high-skill jobs performed by both male and female employees

266.Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the explanation provided by the human capital theory for women’s concentration in certain occupations in seventeenth-century Florence?

(A) Women were unlikely to work outside the home even in occupations whose house were flexible enough to allow women to accommodate domestic tasks as well as paid labor.

(B) Parents were less likely to teach occupational skills to their daughters than they were to their sons.

(C) Women’s participation in the Florentine paid labor force grew steadily throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

(D) The vast majority of female weavers in the Florentine wool industry had children.（A）

(E) Few women worked as weavers in the Florentine silk industry, which was devoted to making cloths that required a high degree of skill to produce.

267.The author of the passage would be most likely to describe the explanation provided by the human capital theory for the high concentration of women in certain occupations in the seventeenth-century Florence textile industry as

(A) well founded though incomplete

(B) difficult to articulate

(C) plausible but poorly substantiated

(D) seriously flawed（A）

(E) contrary to recent research



In the seventeenth-century Florentine textile industry, women were employed primarily in low-paying, low-skill jobs. To explain this segregation of labor by gender, economists have relied on the useful theory of human capital (human capital: n. 人力资本). According to this theory, investment in human capital—the acquisition of difficult job-related skills—generally benefits individuals by making them eligible to engage in well-paid occupations. Women’s role as child bearers, however, results in interruptions in their participation in the job market (as compared with (as compared with: adv.与...比较) men’s) and thus reduces their opportunities to acquire training for highly skilled work. In addition, the human capital theory explains why there was a high concentration of women workers in certain low-skill jobs, such as weaving, but not in others, such as combing or carding, by positing that because of their primary responsibility in child rearing women took occupations that could be carried out in the home.
There were, however, differences in pay scales that cannot be explained by the human capital theory. For example, male construction workers were paid significantly higher wage than female taffeta weavers. The wage difference between these two low-skill occupations stems from the segregation of labor by gender: because a limited number of occupations were open to women, there was a large supply of workers in their fields, and this “overcrowding” resulted in women receiving lower wages and men receiving higher wages.
265.The passage suggests that combing and carding differ from weaving in that combing and carding are

(A) low-skill jobs performed by primarily by women employees

(B) low-skill jobs that were not performed in the home

(C) low-skill jobs performed by both male and female employees

(D) high-skill jobs performed outside the home（B）

(E) high-skill jobs performed by both male and female employees

266.Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the explanation provided by the human capital theory for women’s concentration in certain occupations in seventeenth-century Florence?

(A) Women were unlikely to work outside the home even in occupations whose house were flexible enough to allow women to accommodate domestic tasks as well as paid labor.

(B) Parents were less likely to teach occupational skills to their daughters than they were to their sons.

(C) Women’s participation in the Florentine paid labor force grew steadily throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

(D) The vast majority of female weavers in the Florentine wool industry had children.（A）

(E) Few women worked as weavers in the Florentine silk industry, which was devoted to making cloths that required a high degree of skill to produce.

267.The author of the passage would be most likely to describe the explanation provided by the human capital theory for the high concentration of women in certain occupations in the seventeenth-century Florence textile industry as

(A) well founded though incomplete

(B) difficult to articulate

(C) plausible but poorly substantiated

(D) seriously flawed（A）

(E) contrary to recent research

女王的肥皂

Maps made by non-Native Americans to depict Native American land tenure, resources and population distributions appeared almost as early as Europeans’ first encounters with Native Americans and took many form: missionaries’ field sketches, explorers’ drawings, and surveyors’ maps, as well as maps rendered in connection with treaties involving land transfers. Most existing maps of Native American lands are reconstructions that are based largely on archaeology, oral reports, and evidence gathered from observers’ accounts in letter, diaries, and official reports; accordingly, the accuracy of these maps is especially dependent on the mapmakers’ own interpretive abilities.
Many existing maps also reflect the 150-year role of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in administering tribal lands. Though these maps incorporate some information gleaned directly from Native Americans, rarely has Native American cartography contributed to this official record, which has been compiled, surveyed, and authenticated by non-Native American. Thus our current cartographic record relating to Native American tribes and their migrations and cultural features, as well as territoriality and contemporary trust lands, reflects the origins of the data, the mixed purposes for which the maps have been prepared, and changes both in United States government policy and in non-Native Americans’ attitudes toward an understanding of Native Americans.

第一段， 就是这些Native American land 的map 的制作取决于 mapmakers' interpretive abilities.
第二段，但这些native American 的地图没有native American 的参与，反映的都是Non-native American

错误 271

268. Which of the following best describes the content of the passage?
(A) A chronology of the development of different methods for mapping Native Americans
(B) A discussion of how the mapmaking techniques of Native Americans differed from those of Europeans
(C) An argument concerning the present-day uses to which historical maps of Native American lands are put
(D) An argument concerning the nature of information contained in maps of Native American lands
(E) A proposal for improving the accuracy of maps of Native American lands


269. The passage mentions each of the following as a factor affecting current maps of Native American lands EXCEPT
(A) United States government policy
(B) non-Native Americans’ perspective on Native Americans
(C) origins of the information utilized to produce the maps
(D) changes in ways that tribal lands are used
(E) the reason for producing the maps


270. The passage suggests which of the following about most existing maps of Native American lands?
(A) They do not record the migrations of Native American tribes.
(B) They have been preserved primarily because of their connection with treaties involving land transfers.
(C) They tend to reflect archaeological evidence that has become outdated.
(D) They tend to be less accurate when they are based on oral reports than when they are based on written documents.
(E) They are not based primarily on the mapmakers’ firsthand observations of Native American lands.


271. All of the following are examples of the type of evidence used in creating “Most existing maps” (line 7-8) EXCEPT
(A) a nineteenth-century government report on population distribution of a particular tribe
(B) taped conversations with people who lived on Native American tribal lands in the early twentieth century
(C) aerial photographs of geological features of lands inhabited by Native Americans
(D) findings from a recently excavated site once inhabited by a certain Native American people
(E) a journal kept by a non-Native American explorer who traveled in Native American territory in the early nineteenth century
archaeology, oral reports, and evidence gathered from observers’ accounts in letter, diaries, and official reports
我走copy 过来，还做错了 B 应征的是 oral reports
Maps made by non-Native Americans to depict Native American land tenure (land tenure:土地所有制), resources and population distributions appeared almost as early as Europeans’ first encounters with Native Americans and took many form: missionaries’ field sketches, explorers’ drawings, and surveyors’ maps, as well as maps rendered in connection with treaties involving land transfers. Most existing maps of Native American lands are reconstructions that are based largely on archaeology, oral reports, and evidence gathered from observers’ accounts in letter, diaries, and official reports; accordingly, the accuracy of these maps is especially dependent on the mapmakers’ own interpretive abilities.
Many existing maps also reflect the 150-year role of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in administering tribal lands. Though these maps incorporate some information gleaned directly from Native Americans, rarely has Native American cartography contributed to this official record, which has been compiled, surveyed, and authenticated by non-Native American. Thus our current cartographic record (cartographic record: 制图资料) relating to Native American tribes and their migrations and cultural features, as well as territoriality and contemporary trust lands, reflects the origins of the data, the mixed purposes for which the maps have been prepared, and changes both in United States government policy and in non-Native Americans’ attitudes toward an understanding of Native Americans.
268.Which of the following best describes the content of the passage?

(A) A chronology of the development of different methods for mapping Native Americans

(B) A discussion of how the mapmaking techniques of Native Americans differed from those of Europeans

(C) An argument concerning the present-day uses to which historical maps of Native American lands are put

(D) An argument concerning the nature of information contained in maps of Native American lands（D）

(E) A proposal for improving the accuracy of maps of Native American lands

269.The passage mentions each of the following as a factor affecting current maps of Native American lands EXCEPT

(A) United States government policy

(B) non-Native Americans’ perspective on Native Americans

(C) origins of the information utilized to produce the maps

(D) changes in ways that tribal lands are used（D）

(E) the reason for producing the maps

270.The passage suggests which of the following about most existing maps of Native American lands?

(A) They do not record the migrations of Native American tribes.

(B) They have been preserved primarily because of their connection with treaties involving land transfers.

(C) They tend to reflect archaeological evidence that has become outdated.

(D) They tend to be less accurate when they are based on oral reports than when they are based on written documents.（E）

(E) They are not based primarily on the mapmakers’ firsthand observations of Native American lands.

271.All of the following are examples of the type of evidence used in creating “Most existing maps” (line 7-8) EXCEPT

(A) a nineteenth-century government report on population distribution of a particular tribe

(B) taped conversations with people who lived on Native American tribal lands in the early twentieth century

(C) aerial photographs of geological features of lands inhabited by Native Americans

(D) findings from a recently excavated site once inhabited by a certain Native American people（C）

(E) a journal kept by a non-Native American explorer who traveled in Native American territory in the early nineteenth century



Maps made by non-Native Americans to depict Native American land tenure (land tenure:土地所有制), resources and population distributions appeared almost as early as Europeans’ first encounters with Native Americans and took many form: missionaries’ field sketches, explorers’ drawings, and surveyors’ maps, as well as maps rendered in connection with treaties involving land transfers. Most existing maps of Native American lands are reconstructions that are based largely on archaeology, oral reports, and evidence gathered from observers’ accounts in letter, diaries, and official reports; accordingly, the accuracy of these maps is especially dependent on the mapmakers’ own interpretive abilities.
Many existing maps also reflect the 150-year role of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in administering tribal lands. Though these maps incorporate some information gleaned directly from Native Americans, rarely has Native American cartography contributed to this official record, which has been compiled, surveyed, and authenticated by non-Native American. Thus our current cartographic record (cartographic record: 制图资料) relating to Native American tribes and their migrations and cultural features, as well as territoriality and contemporary trust lands, reflects the origins of the data, the mixed purposes for which the maps have been prepared, and changes both in United States government policy and in non-Native Americans’ attitudes toward an understanding of Native Americans.
268.Which of the following best describes the content of the passage?

(A) A chronology of the development of different methods for mapping Native Americans

(B) A discussion of how the mapmaking techniques of Native Americans differed from those of Europeans

(C) An argument concerning the present-day uses to which historical maps of Native American lands are put

(D) An argument concerning the nature of information contained in maps of Native American lands（D）

(E) A proposal for improving the accuracy of maps of Native American lands

269.The passage mentions each of the following as a factor affecting current maps of Native American lands EXCEPT

(A) United States government policy

(B) non-Native Americans’ perspective on Native Americans

(C) origins of the information utilized to produce the maps

(D) changes in ways that tribal lands are used（D）

(E) the reason for producing the maps

270.The passage suggests which of the following about most existing maps of Native American lands?

(A) They do not record the migrations of Native American tribes.

(B) They have been preserved primarily because of their connection with treaties involving land transfers.

(C) They tend to reflect archaeological evidence that has become outdated.

(D) They tend to be less accurate when they are based on oral reports than when they are based on written documents.（E）

(E) They are not based primarily on the mapmakers’ firsthand observations of Native American lands.

271.All of the following are examples of the type of evidence used in creating “Most existing maps” (line 7-8) EXCEPT

(A) a nineteenth-century government report on population distribution of a particular tribe

(B) taped conversations with people who lived on Native American tribal lands in the early twentieth century

(C) aerial photographs of geological features of lands inhabited by Native Americans

(D) findings from a recently excavated site once inhabited by a certain Native American people（C）

(E) a journal kept by a non-Native American explorer who traveled in Native American territory in the early nineteenth century

女王的肥皂

It is now possible to hear a recording of Caruso’s singing that is far superior to any made during his lifetime. A decades-old wax-cylinder recording of this great operatic tenor has been digitized, and the digitized signal has been processed by computer to remove the extraneous sound, or “noise,” introduced by the now “ancient” wax-cylinder recording process.
Although this digital technique needs improvements, it represents a new and superior way of recording and processing sound which overcomes many of the limitations of analog recording. In analog recording systems, the original sound is represented as a continuous waveform created by variations in the sound’s amplitude over time. When analog playback systems reproduce this waveform, however, they invariably introduce distortions. First, the waveform produced during playback differs somewhat from the original waveform. Second, the medium that stores the analog recording creates noise during playback which gets added to the recorded sounds.
Digital recordings, by contrast, reduce the original sound to a series of discrete numbers that represent the sound’s waveform. Because the digital playback system “reads” only numbers, any noise and distortion that may accumulate during storage and manipulation of the digitized signal will have little effect: as long as the numbers remain recognizable, the original waveform will be reconstructed with little loss in quality. However, because the waveform is continuous, while its digital representation is composed of discrete numbers,it is impossible for digital systems to avoid some distortion. One kind of distortion, called “sampling error,” occurs if the sound is sampled (i.e., its amplitude is measured) too infrequently, so that the amplitude changes more than one quantum (the smallest change in amplitude measured by the digital system) between samplings. In effect, the sound is changing too quickly for the system to record it accurately. A second form of distortion is “quantizing error,” which arises when the amplitude being measured is not a whole number of quanta, forcing the digital recorder to round off. Over the long term, these errors are random, and the noise produced (a background buzzing) is similar to analog noise except that it only occurs when recorded sounds are being reproduced.

第二段，analog playback system 翻录的时候就会失真，有两个问题，1 waveform 和原来的waveform 有些不同，2 medium 会在翻录时加入噪音。
第三段，Digital recording 有两个问题，1 声音变化太快，记不下来，2 声音的力量是不是一个整个的quanta。

结论是，digital recording 的这些问题都是偶尔出现的。而且，对于噪音的问题，这两种recording方法是差不多的，但是 reproducing 的时候除外。

我看的不是很明白第三段

错误 272

272. Which of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph to the passage as a whole?
(A) The first paragraph introduces a general thesis that is elaborated on in detail elsewhere in the passage.
(B) The first paragraph presents a concrete instance of a problem that is discussed elsewhere in the passage.
(C) The first paragraph describes a traditional process that is contrasted unfavorably with a newer process described elsewhere in the passage.
(D) The first paragraph presents a dramatic example of the potential of a process that is described elsewhere in the passage.
(E) The first paragraph describes a historic incident that served as the catalyst for developments described elsewhere in the passage.
AB 注意 genereal thesis 和 concrete instance 的区别。


273. According the passage, one of the ways in which analog recording systems differ from digital recording systems is that analog systems
(A) can be used to reduce background noise in old recordings
(B) record the original sound as a continuous waveform
(C) distort the original sound somewhat
(D) can avoid introducing extraneous and nonmusical sounds
(E) can reconstruct the original waveform with little loss in quality


274. Which of the following statements about the numbers by which sound is represented in a digital system can be inferred from the passage?
(A) They describe the time interval between successive sounds in a passage of music.
(B) They model large changes in the amplitude of the initial sound with relatively poor precision.
(C) They are slightly altered each time they are read by the playback apparatus.
(D) They are not readily altered by distortion and noise accumulated as the digital signal is stored and manipulated.
(E) They are stored in the recording medium in small groups that can be read simultaneously by the playback apparatus.


275. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the digital approach to the processing of sound?
(A) It was developed in competition with wax-cylinder recording technology.
(B) It has resulted in the first distortion-free playback system.
(C) It has been extensively applied to nonmusical sounds.
(D) It cannot yet process music originally recorded on analog equipment.
(E) It is not yet capable of reprocessing old recordings in a completely distortion-free manner.



It is now possible to hear a recording of Caruso’s singing that is far superior to any made during his lifetime. A decades-old wax-cylinder recording of this great operatic tenor has been digitized, and the digitized signal has been processed by computer to remove the extraneous sound, or “noise,” introduced by the now “ancient” wax-cylinder recording process.
Although this digital technique needs improvements, it represents a new and superior way of recording and processing sound which overcomes many of the limitations of analog recording. In analog recording systems, the original sound is represented as a continuous waveform created by variations in the sound’s amplitude over time. When analog playback systems reproduce this waveform, however, they invariably introduce distortions. First, the waveform produced during playback differs somewhat from the original waveform. Second, the medium that stores the analog recording creates noise during playback which gets added to the recorded sounds.
Digital recordings, by contrast, reduce the original sound to a series of discrete numbers that represent the sound’s waveform. Because the digital playback system “reads” only numbers, any noise and distortion that may accumulate during storage and manipulation of the digitized signal will have little effect: as long as the numbers remain recognizable, the original waveform will be reconstructed with little loss in quality. However, because the waveform is continuous, while its digital representation is composed of discrete numbers, it is impossible for digital systems to avoid some distortion. One kind of distortion, called “sampling error,” occurs if the sound is sampled (i.e., its amplitude is measured) too infrequently, so that the amplitude changes more than one quantum (the smallest change in amplitude measured by the digital system) between samplings. In effect, the sound is changing too quickly for the system to record it accurately. A second form of distortion is “quantizing error,” which arises when the amplitude being measured is not a whole number of quanta, forcing the digital recorder to round off. Over the long term, these errors are random, and the noise produced (a background buzzing) is similar to analog noise except that it only occurs when recorded sounds are being reproduced.
272.Which of the following best describes the relationship of the first paragraph to the passage as a whole?

(A) The first paragraph introduces a general thesis that is elaborated on (elaborate on: v.详细说明) in detail elsewhere in the passage.

(B) The first paragraph presents a concrete instance of a problem that is discussed elsewhere in the passage.

(C) The first paragraph describes a traditional process that is contrasted unfavorably with a newer process described elsewhere in the passage.

(D) The first paragraph presents a dramatic example of the potential of a process that is described elsewhere in the passage.（D）

(E) The first paragraph describes a historic incident that served as the catalyst for developments described elsewhere in the passage.

273.According the passage, one of the ways in which analog recording systems differ from digital recording systems is that analog systems

(A) can be used to reduce background noise in old recordings

(B) record the original sound as a continuous waveform

(C) distort the original sound somewhat

(D) can avoid introducing extraneous and nonmusical sounds（B）

(E) can reconstruct the original waveform with little loss in quality

274.Which of the following statements about the numbers by which sound is represented in a digital system can be inferred from the passage?

(A) They describe the time interval between successive sounds in a passage of music.

(B) They model large changes in the amplitude of the initial sound with relatively poor precision.

(C) They are slightly altered each time they are read by the playback apparatus.

(D) They are not readily altered by distortion and noise accumulated as the digital signal is stored and manipulated.（D）

(E) They are stored in the recording medium in small groups that can be read simultaneously by the playback apparatus.

275.Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about the digital approach to the processing of sound?

(A) It was developed in competition with wax-cylinder recording technology.

(B) It has resulted in the first distortion-free playback system.

(C) It has been extensively applied to nonmusical sounds.

(D) It cannot yet process music originally recorded on analog equipment.（E）

(E) It is not yet capable of reprocessing old recordings in a completely distortion-free manner.

女王的肥皂

The function of capital markets is to facilitate an exchange of funds among all participants, and yet in practice we find that certain participants are not on a par with others. Members of society have varying degrees of market strength in terms of information they bring to a transaction, as well as of purchasing power and creditworthiness, as defined by lenders.
For example, within minority communities, capital markets do not properly fulfill their functions; they do not provide access to the aggregate flow of funds in the United States. The financial system does not generate the credit or investment vehicles needed for underwriting economic development in minority areas. The problem underlying this dysfunction is found in a rationing mechanism affecting both the available alternatives for investment and the amount of financial resources. This creates a distributive mechanism penalizing members of minority groups because of their socioeconomic differences from others. The existing system expresses definite socially based investment preferences that result from the previous allocation of income and that influence the allocation of resources for the present and future. The system tends to increase the inequality of income distribution. And, in the United States economy, a greater inequality of income distribution leads to a greater concentration of capital in certain types of investment.
Most traditional financial-market analysis studies ignore financial markets’ deficiencies in allocation because of analysts’ inherent preferences for the simple model of perfect competition. Conventional financial analysis pays limited attention to issues of market structure and dynamics, relative costs of information, and problems of income distribution. Market participants are viewed as acting as entirely independent and homogeneous individuals with perfect foresight about capital-market behavior. Also, it is assumed that each individual in the community at large has the same access to the market and the same opportunity to transact and to express the preference appropriate to his or her individual interest. Moreover, it is assumed that transaction costs for various types of financial instruments (stocks, bonds, etc.) are equally known and equally divided among all community members.

第一段，资本市场的人的力量是不一样的，这种力量包括 信息的不一样，purchasing power 的不一样，creditworthy的不一样。
第二段，美国的这种 investment preference leads to money concentrating into certain types of ivestment
第三段，就是taditional financial market analysis 分析的缺陷： 认为所有人都是一样的，每个人都能同样进入市场，同样的机会进行交易，交易成本也都是知道了，都是一样的。


276. The main point made by the passage is that
(A) financial markets provide for an optimum allocation of resources among all competing participants by balancing supply and demand
(B) the allocation of financial resources takes place among separate individual participants, each of whom has access to the market
(C) the existence of certain factors adversely affecting members of minority groups shows that financial markets do not function as conventional theory says they function
(D) investments in minority communities can be made by the use of various alternative financial instruments, such as stocks and bonds
(E) since transaction costs for stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments are not equally apportioned among all minority-group members, the financial market is subject to criticism



277. The passage states that traditional studies of the financial market overlook imbalances in the allocation of financial resources because
(A) an optimum allocation of resources is the final result of competition among participants
(B) those performing the studies choose an oversimplified description of the influences on competition
(C) such imbalances do not appear in the statistics usually compiled to measure the market’s behavior
(D) the analysts who study the market are unwilling to accept criticism of their methods as biased
(E) socioeconomic difference form the basis of a rationing mechanism that puts minority groups at a disadvantage


278. The author’s main point is argued by
(A) giving examples that support a conventional generalization
(B) showing that the view opposite to the author’s is self-contradictory
(C) criticizing the presuppositions of a proposed plan
(D) showing that omissions in a theoretical description make it inapplicable in certain cases
(E) demonstrating that an alternative hypothesis more closely fits the data


279. A difference in which of the following would be an example of inequality in transaction costs as alluded to in lines 40-43?
(A) Maximum amounts of loans extended by a bank to businesses in different areas
(B) Fees charged to large and small investors for purchasing stocks
(C) Prices of similar goods offered in large and small stores in an area
(D) Stipends paid to different attorneys for preparing legal suits for damages
(E) Exchange rates in dollars for currencies of different countries


280. Which of the following can be inferred about minority communities on the basis of the passage?
(A) They provide a significant portion of the funds that become available for investment in the financial market.
(B) They are penalized by the tax system, which increases the inequality of the distribution of income between investors and wage earners.
(C) They do no receive the share of the amount of funds available for investment that would be expected according to traditional financial-market analysis.
(D) They are not granted governmental subsidies to assist in underwriting the cost of economic development.
(E) They provide the same access to alternative sources of credit to finance businesses as do majority communities.


281. According to the passage, a questionable assumption of the conventional theory about the operation of financial markets is that
(A) creditworthiness as determined by lenders is a factor determining market access
(B) market structure and market dynamics depend on income distribution
(C) a scarcity of alternative sources of funds would result from taking socioeconomic factors into consideration
(D) those who engage in financial-market transactions are perfectly well informed about the market
(E) inequalities in income distribution are increased by the functioning of the financial market


282. According to the passage, analysts have conventionally tended to view those who participate in financial market as
(A) judging investment preferences in terms of the good of society as a whole
(B) influencing the allocation of funds through prior ownership of certain kinds of assets
(C) varying in market power with respect to one another
(D) basing judgments about future events mainly on chance
(E) having equal opportunities to engage in transactions

The function of capital markets is to facilitate an exchange of funds among all participants, and yet in practice we find that certain participants are not on a par with others. Members of society have varying degrees of market strength in terms of information they bring to a transaction, as well as of purchasing power and creditworthiness, as defined by lenders.
For example, within minority communities, capital markets do not properly fulfill their functions; they do not provide access to the aggregate flow of funds in the United States. The financial system does not generate the credit or investment vehicles needed for underwriting economic development in minority areas. The problem underlying this dysfunction is found in a rationing mechanism affecting both the available alternatives for investment and the amount of financial resources. This creates a distributive mechanism penalizing members of minority groups because of their socioeconomic differences from others. The existing system expresses definite socially based investment preferences that result from the previous allocation of income and that influence the allocation of resources for the present and future. The system tends to increase the inequality of income distribution. And, in the United States economy, a greater inequality of income distribution leads to a greater concentration of capital in certain types of investment.
Most traditional financial-market analysis studies ignore financial markets’ deficiencies in allocation because of analysts’ inherent preferences for the simple model of perfect competition. Conventional financial analysis pays limited attention to issues of market structure and dynamics, relative costs of information, and problems of income distribution. Market participants are viewed as acting as entirely independent and homogeneous individuals with perfect foresight about capital-market behavior. Also, it is assumed that each individual in the community at large has the same access to the market and the same opportunity to transact and to express the preference appropriate to his or her individual interest. Moreover, it is assumed that transaction costs for various types of financial instruments (stocks, bonds, etc.) are equally known and equally divided among all community members.
276.The main point made by the passage is that

(A) financial markets provide for an optimum allocation of resources among all competing participants by balancing supply and demand

(B) the allocation of financial resources takes place among separate individual participants, each of whom has access to the market

(C) the existence of certain factors adversely affecting members of minority groups shows that financial markets do not function as conventional theory says they function

(D) investments in minority communities can be made by the use of various alternative financial instruments, such as stocks and bonds（C）

(E) since transaction costs for stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments are not equally apportioned among all minority-group members, the financial market is subject to criticism

277.The passage states that traditional studies of the financial market overlook imbalances in the allocation of financial resources because

(A) an optimum allocation of resources is the final result of competition among participants

(B) those performing the studies choose an oversimplified description of the influences on competition

(C) such imbalances do not appear in the statistics usually compiled to measure the market’s behavior

(D) the analysts who study the market are unwilling to accept criticism of their methods as biased（B）

(E) socioeconomic difference form the basis of a rationing mechanism that puts minority groups at a disadvantage

278.The author’s main point is argued by

(A) giving examples that support a conventional generalization

(B) showing that the view opposite to the author’s is self-contradictory

(C) criticizing the presuppositions of a proposed plan

(D) showing that omissions in a theoretical description make it inapplicable in certain cases（D）

(E) demonstrating that an alternative hypothesis more closely fits the data

279.A difference in which of the following would be an example of inequality in transaction costs as alluded to in lines 40-43?

(A) Maximum amounts of loans extended by a bank to businesses in different areas

(B) Fees charged to large and small investors for purchasing stocks

(C) Prices of similar goods offered in large and small stores in an area

(D) Stipends paid to different attorneys for preparing legal suits for damages（B）

(E) Exchange rates in dollars for currencies of different countries

280.Which of the following can be inferred about minority communities on the basis of the passage?

(A) They provide a significant portion of the funds that become available for investment in the financial market.

(B) They are penalized by the tax system, which increases the inequality of the distribution of income between investors and wage earners.

(C) They do no receive the share of the amount of funds available for investment that would be expected according to traditional financial-market analysis.

(D) They are not granted governmental subsidies to assist in underwriting the cost of economic development.（C）

(E) They provide the same access to alternative sources of credit to finance businesses as do majority communities.

281.According to the passage, a questionable assumption of the conventional theory about the operation of financial markets is that

(A) creditworthiness as determined by lenders is a factor determining market access

(B) market structure and market dynamics depend on income distribution

(C) a scarcity of alternative sources of funds would result from taking socioeconomic factors into consideration

(D) those who engage in financial-market transactions are perfectly well informed about the market（D）

(E) inequalities in income distribution are increased by the functioning of the financial market

282.According to the passage, analysts have conventionally tended to view those who participate in financial market as

(A) judging investment preferences in terms of the good of society as a whole

(B) influencing the allocation of funds through prior ownership of certain kinds of assets

(C) varying in market power with respect to one another

(D) basing judgments about future events mainly on chance（E）

(E) having equal opportunities to engage in transactions



The function of capital markets is to facilitate an exchange of funds among all participants, and yet in practice we find that certain participants are not on a par with others. Members of society have varying degrees of market strength in terms of information they bring to a transaction, as well as of purchasing power and creditworthiness, as defined by lenders.
For example, within minority communities, capital markets do not properly fulfill their functions; they do not provide access to the aggregate flow of funds in the United States. The financial system does not generate the credit or investment vehicles needed for underwriting economic development in minority areas. The problem underlying this dysfunction is found in a rationing mechanism affecting both the available alternatives for investment and the amount of financial resources. This creates a distributive mechanism penalizing members of minority groups because of their socioeconomic differences from others. The existing system expresses definite socially based investment preferences that result from the previous allocation of income and that influence the allocation of resources for the present and future. The system tends to increase the inequality of income distribution. And, in the United States economy, a greater inequality of income distribution leads to a greater concentration of capital in certain types of investment.
Most traditional financial-market analysis studies ignore financial markets’ deficiencies in allocation because of analysts’ inherent preferences for the simple model of perfect competition. Conventional financial analysis pays limited attention to issues of market structure and dynamics, relative costs of information, and problems of income distribution. Market participants are viewed as acting as entirely independent and homogeneous individuals with perfect foresight about capital-market behavior. Also, it is assumed that each individual in the community at large has the same access to the market and the same opportunity to transact and to express the preference appropriate to his or her individual interest. Moreover, it is assumed that transaction costs for various types of financial instruments (stocks, bonds, etc.) are equally known and equally divided among all community members.
276.The main point made by the passage is that

(A) financial markets provide for an optimum allocation of resources among all competing participants by balancing supply and demand

(B) the allocation of financial resources takes place among separate individual participants, each of whom has access to the market

(C) the existence of certain factors adversely affecting members of minority groups shows that financial markets do not function as conventional theory says they function

(D) investments in minority communities can be made by the use of various alternative financial instruments, such as stocks and bonds（C）

(E) since transaction costs for stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments are not equally apportioned among all minority-group members, the financial market is subject to criticism

277.The passage states that traditional studies of the financial market overlook imbalances in the allocation of financial resources because

(A) an optimum allocation of resources is the final result of competition among participants

(B) those performing the studies choose an oversimplified description of the influences on competition

(C) such imbalances do not appear in the statistics usually compiled to measure the market’s behavior

(D) the analysts who study the market are unwilling to accept criticism of their methods as biased（B）

(E) socioeconomic difference form the basis of a rationing mechanism that puts minority groups at a disadvantage

278.The author’s main point is argued by

(A) giving examples that support a conventional generalization

(B) showing that the view opposite to the author’s is self-contradictory

(C) criticizing the presuppositions of a proposed plan

(D) showing that omissions in a theoretical description make it inapplicable in certain cases（D）

(E) demonstrating that an alternative hypothesis more closely fits the data

279.A difference in which of the following would be an example of inequality in transaction costs as alluded to in lines 40-43?

(A) Maximum amounts of loans extended by a bank to businesses in different areas

(B) Fees charged to large and small investors for purchasing stocks

(C) Prices of similar goods offered in large and small stores in an area

(D) Stipends paid to different attorneys for preparing legal suits for damages（B）

(E) Exchange rates in dollars for currencies of different countries

280.Which of the following can be inferred about minority communities on the basis of the passage?

(A) They provide a significant portion of the funds that become available for investment in the financial market.

(B) They are penalized by the tax system, which increases the inequality of the distribution of income between investors and wage earners.

(C) They do no receive the share of the amount of funds available for investment that would be expected according to traditional financial-market analysis.

(D) They are not granted governmental subsidies to assist in underwriting the cost of economic development.（C）

(E) They provide the same access to alternative sources of credit to finance businesses as do majority communities.

281.According to the passage, a questionable assumption of the conventional theory about the operation of financial markets is that

(A) creditworthiness as determined by lenders is a factor determining market access

(B) market structure and market dynamics depend on income distribution

(C) a scarcity of alternative sources of funds would result from taking socioeconomic factors into consideration

(D) those who engage in financial-market transactions are perfectly well informed about the market（D）

(E) inequalities in income distribution are increased by the functioning of the financial market

282.According to the passage, analysts have conventionally tended to view those who participate in financial market as

(A) judging investment preferences in terms of the good of society as a whole

(B) influencing the allocation of funds through prior ownership of certain kinds of assets

(C) varying in market power with respect to one another

(D) basing judgments about future events mainly on chance（E）

(E) having equal opportunities to engage in transactions

女王的肥皂

(The following is based on material written in 1996.)
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, signed in 1987 by more than 150 nations, has attained its short-term goals: it has decreased the rate of increase in amounts of most ozone-depleting chemicals reaching the atmosphere and has even reduced the atmospheric levels of some of them. The projection that the ozone layer will substantially recover from ozone depletion by 2050 is based on the assumption that the protocol’s regulations will be strictly followed. Yet there is considerable evidence of violations, particularly in the form of the release of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), which are commonly used in the refrigeration, heating, and air conditioning industries. These violations reflect industry attitudes; for example, in the United States, 48 percents of respondents in a recent survey of subscribers to Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration News, an industry trade journal, said that they did not believe that CFC’s damage the ozone layer. Moreover, some in the industry apparently do not want to pay for CFC substitutes, which can run five times the cost of CFC’s. Consequently, a black market in imported illicit CFC’s has grown. Estimates of the contraband CFC trade range from 10,000 to 22,000 tons a year, with most of the CFC’s originating in India and China（我看的挺无奈的。）, whose agreements under the Protocol still allow them to produce CFC’s. In fact, the United States Customs Service reports that CFC-12 is a contraband problem second only to illicit drugs.

这事 你怎么说，别说中国印度就不好，美国也是用。

Montreal Portocol 实现了短期目标。但是长期目标很难实现，因为大家在用CFC。

错误 285

283. According to the passage, which of the following best describes most ozone-depleting chemicals in 1996 as compared to those in 1987?
(A) The levels of such chemicals in the atmosphere had decreased.
(B) The number of such chemicals that reached the atmosphere had declined.
(C) The amounts of such chemicals released had increased but the amounts that reached the atmosphere had decreased.
(D) The rate of increase in amounts of such chemicals reaching the atmosphere had decreased.
(E) The rate at which such chemicals were being reduced in the atmosphere had slowed.

and has even reduced the atmospheric levels of some of them 我险些就是A了， 注意A中 such chemicals ，但是文章是some chemicals

284. The author of the passage compares the smuggling of CFC’s to the illicit drug trade most likely for which of the following reasons?
(A) To qualify a previous claim
(B) To emphasize the extent of a problem
(C) To provide an explanation for an earlier assertion
(D) To suggest that the illicit CFC trade, likely the illicit drug trade, will continue to increase
(E) To suggest that the consequences of a relatively little-known problem are as serious as those of a well-known one


285. The passage suggests which of the following about the illicit trade in CFC’s?
(A) It would cease if manufacturers in India and China stopped producing CFC’s.
(B) Most people who participate in such trade do not believe that CFC’s deplete the ozone layer.
(C) It will probably surpass illicit drugs as the largest contraband problem faced by the United States Custom Services.
(D) It is fostered by people who do not want to pay the price of CFC substitutes.
(E) It has grown primarily because of the expansion of the refrigeration, heating, and air-conditioning industries in foreign countries.

Most people who participate in such trade do not believe that CFC’s deplete the ozone layer.
这句话啥意思，原文说的可是受访者这样认为，而不是参与走私的人怎么想，这个文章里可是没有的。

(The following is based on material written in 1996.)
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, signed in 1987 by more than 150 nations, has attained its short-term goals: it has decreased the rate of increase in amounts of most ozone-depleting chemicals reaching the atmosphere and has even reduced the atmospheric levels of some of them. The projection that the ozone layer will substantially recover from ozone depletion by 2050 is based on the assumption that the protocol’s regulations will be strictly followed. Yet there is considerable evidence of violations, particularly in the form of the release of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), which are commonly used in the refrigeration, heating, and air conditioning industries. These violations reflect industry attitudes; for example, in the United States, 48 percents of respondents in a recent survey of subscribers to Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration News, an industry trade journal, said that they did not believe that CFC’s damage the ozone layer. Moreover, some in the industry apparently do not want to pay for CFC substitutes, which can run five times the cost of CFC’s. Consequently, a black market in imported illicit CFC’s has grown. Estimates of the contraband CFC trade range from 10,000 to 22,000 tons a year, with most of the CFC’s originating in India and China, whose agreements under the Protocol still allow them to produce CFC’s. In fact, the United States Customs Service reports that CFC-12 is a contraband problem second only to illicit drugs.
283.According to the passage, which of the following best describes most ozone-depleting chemicals in 1996 as compared to those in 1987?

(A) The levels of such chemicals in the atmosphere had decreased.

(B) The number of such chemicals that reached the atmosphere had declined.

(C) The amounts of such chemicals released had increased but the amounts that reached the atmosphere had decreased.

(D) The rate of increase in amounts of such chemicals reaching the atmosphere had decreased.（D）

(E) The rate at which such chemicals were being reduced in the atmosphere had slowed.

284.The author of the passage compares the smuggling of CFC’s to the illicit drug trade most likely for which of the following reasons?

(A) To qualify a previous claim

(B) To emphasize the extent of a problem

(C) To provide an explanation for an earlier assertion

(D) To suggest that the illicit CFC trade, likely the illicit drug trade, will continue to increase（B）

(E) To suggest that the consequences of a relatively little-known problem are as serious as those of a well-known one

285.The passage suggests which of the following about the illicit trade in CFC’s?

(A) It would cease if manufacturers in India and China stopped producing CFC’s.

(B) Most people who participate in such trade do not believe that CFC’s deplete the ozone layer.

(C) It will probably surpass illicit drugs as the largest contraband problem faced by the United States Custom Services.

(D) It is fostered by people who do not want to pay the price of CFC substitutes.（D）

(E) It has grown primarily because of the expansion of the refrigeration, heating, and air-conditioning industries in foreign countries.





(The following is based on material written in 1996.)
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, signed in 1987 by more than 150 nations, has attained its short-term goals: it has decreased the rate of increase in amounts of most ozone-depleting chemicals reaching the atmosphere and has even reduced the atmospheric levels of some of them. The projection that the ozone layer will substantially recover from ozone depletion by 2050 is based on the assumption that the protocol’s regulations will be strictly followed. Yet there is considerable evidence of violations, particularly in the form of the release of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), which are commonly used in the refrigeration, heating, and air conditioning industries. These violations reflect industry attitudes; for example, in the United States, 48 percents of respondents in a recent survey of subscribers to Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration News, an industry trade journal, said that they did not believe that CFC’s damage the ozone layer. Moreover, some in the industry apparently do not want to pay for CFC substitutes, which can run five times the cost of CFC’s. Consequently, a black market in imported illicit CFC’s has grown. Estimates of the contraband CFC trade range from 10,000 to 22,000 tons a year, with most of the CFC’s originating in India and China, whose agreements under the Protocol still allow them to produce CFC’s. In fact, the United States Customs Service reports that CFC-12 is a contraband problem second only to illicit drugs.
283.According to the passage, which of the following best describes most ozone-depleting chemicals in 1996 as compared to those in 1987?

(A) The levels of such chemicals in the atmosphere had decreased.

(B) The number of such chemicals that reached the atmosphere had declined.

(C) The amounts of such chemicals released had increased but the amounts that reached the atmosphere had decreased.

(D) The rate of increase in amounts of such chemicals reaching the atmosphere had decreased.（D）

(E) The rate at which such chemicals were being reduced in the atmosphere had slowed.

284.The author of the passage compares the smuggling of CFC’s to the illicit drug trade most likely for which of the following reasons?

(A) To qualify a previous claim

(B) To emphasize the extent of a problem

(C) To provide an explanation for an earlier assertion

(D) To suggest that the illicit CFC trade, likely the illicit drug trade, will continue to increase（B）

(E) To suggest that the consequences of a relatively little-known problem are as serious as those of a well-known one

285.The passage suggests which of the following about the illicit trade in CFC’s?

(A) It would cease if manufacturers in India and China stopped producing CFC’s.

(B) Most people who participate in such trade do not believe that CFC’s deplete the ozone layer.

(C) It will probably surpass illicit drugs as the largest contraband problem faced by the United States Custom Services.

(D) It is fostered by people who do not want to pay the price of CFC substitutes.（D）

(E) It has grown primarily because of the expansion of the refrigeration, heating, and air-conditioning industries in foreign countries.

女王的肥皂

Ecoefficiency (measures to minimize environmental impact through the reduction or elimination of waste from production processes) has become a goal for companies worldwide, with many realizing significant cost savings from such innovations. Peter Senge and Goran Carstedt see this development as laudable but suggest that simply adopting ecoefficiency innovations could actually worsen environmental stresses in the future. Such innovations reduce production waste but do not alter the number of products manufactured nor the waste generated from their use and discard; indeed, most companies invest in ecoefficiency improvements in order to increase profits and growth. Moreover, there is no guarantee that increased economic growth from ecoefficiency will come in similarly ecoefficient ways, since in today’s global markets, greater profits may be turned into investment capital that could easily be reinvested in old-style eco-inefficient industries. Even a vastly more ecoefficient industrial system could, were it to grow much larger, generate more total waste and destroy more habitat and species than would a smaller, less ecoefficient economy. Senge and Carstedt argue that to preserve the global environment and sustain economic growth, businesses must develop a new systemic approach that reduces total material use and total accumulated waste. Focusing exclusively on ecoefficiency, which offers a compelling business case according to established thinking, may distract companies from pursuing radically different products and business models.

ecoefficiency 可以个企业带来cost saving . 但是 P and G 确认为ecoefficiency 可能会带来未来的环境压力， 理由：1 这些企业的产量没有变化，废物还是存在。2 转来的钱可能用会被 un ecoefficiency的方式使用，投入到非 ecoefficiency的行业，或都这样的企业变大，废物产生的更多。

总之这两个人呼吁从总量上控制废物的生成的问题。

错误 1

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) explain why a particular business strategy has been less successful than was once anticipated
(B) propose an alternative to a particular business strategy that has inadvertently caused ecological damage
(C) present a concern about the possible consequences of pursuing a particular business strategy
(D) make a case for applying a particular business strategy on a larger scale than is currently practiced
(E) suggest several possible outcomes of companies’ failure to understand the economic impact of a particular business strategy
真心觉得AC都是可以的啊  额。 怎么说？ 承认 这里强调的只是 possible consequences
Th e passage never discusses whether
ecoeffi ciency is or is not successful but only
the possible consequences of it.

2. The passage mentions which of the following as a possible consequence of companies’ realization of greater profits through ecoefficiency?
(A) The companies may be able to sell a greater number of products by lowering prices.
(B) The companies may be better able to attract investment capital in the global market.
(C) The profits may be reinvested to increase economic growth through ecoefficiency.
(D) The profits may be used as investment capital for industries that are not ecoefficient.
(E) The profits may encourage companies to make further innovations in reducing production waste.

3. The passage implies that which of the following is a possible consequence of a company’s adoption of innovations that increase its ecoefficiency?
(A) Company profits resulting from such innovations may be reinvested in that company with no guarantee that the company will continue to make further improvements in ecoefficiency.
(B) Company growth fostered by cost savings from such innovations may allow that company to manufacture a greater number of products that will be used and discarded, thus worsening environmental stress.
(C) A company that fails to realize significant cost savings from such innovations may have little incentive to continue to minimize the environmental impact of its production processes.
(D) A company that comes to depend on such innovations to increase its profits and growth may be vulnerable in the global market to competition from old-style eco-inefficient industries.
(E) A company that meets its ecoefficiency goals is unlikely to invest its increased profits in the development of new and innovative ecoefficiency measures.

Ecoefficiency (measures to minimize environmental impact through the reduction or elimination of waste from production processes) has become a goal for companies worldwide, with many realizing significant cost savings from such innovations. Peter Senge and Goran Carstedt see this development as laudable but suggest that simply adopting ecoefficiency innovations could actually worsen environmental stresses in the future. Such innovations reduce production waste but do not alter the number of products manufactured nor the waste generated from their use and discard; indeed, most companies invest in ecoefficiency improvements in order to increase profits and growth. Moreover, there is no guarantee that increased economic growth from ecoefficiency will come in similarly ecoefficient ways, since in today’s global markets, greater profits may be turned into investment capital that could easily be reinvested in old-style eco-inefficient industries. Even a vastly more ecoefficient industrial system could, were it to grow much larger, generate more total waste and destroy more habitat and species than would a smaller, less ecoefficient economy. Senge and Carstedt argue that to preserve the global environment and sustain economic growth, businesses must develop a new systemic approach that reduces total material use and total accumulated waste. Focusing exclusively on ecoefficiency, which offers a compelling business case according to established thinking, may distract companies from pursuing radically different products and business models.



1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) explain why a particular business strategy has been less successful than was once anticipated

(B) propose an alternative to a particular business strategy that has inadvertently caused ecological damage

(C) present a concern about the possible consequences of pursuing a particular business strategy

(D) make a case for applying a particular business strategy on a larger scale than is currently practiced (C)

(E) suggest several possible outcomes of companies’ failure to understand the economic impact of a particular business strategy



2. The passage mentions which of the following as a possible consequence of companies’ realization of greater profits through ecoefficiency?

(A) The companies may be able to sell a greater number of products by lowering prices.

(B) The companies may be better able to attract investment capital in the global market.

(C) The profits may be reinvested to increase economic growth through ecoefficiency.

(D) The profits may be used as investment capital for industries that are not ecoefficient. (D)

(E) The profits may encourage companies to make further innovations in reducing production waste.



3. The passage implies that which of the following is a possible consequence of a company’s adoption of innovations that increase its ecoefficiency?

(A) Company profits resulting from such innovations may be reinvested in that company with no guarantee that the company will continue to make further improvements in ecoefficiency.

(B) Company growth fostered by cost savings from such innovations may allow that company to manufacture a greater number of products that will be used and discarded, thus worsening environmental stress.

(C) A company that fails to realize significant cost savings from such innovations may have little incentive to continue to minimize the environmental impact of its production processes.

(D) A company that comes to depend on such innovations to increase its profits and growth may be vulnerable in the global market to competition from old-style eco-inefficient industries. (B)

(E) A company that meets its ecoefficiency goals is unlikely to invest its increased profits in the development of new and innovative ecoefficiency measures.



Ecoefficiency (measures to minimize environmental impact through the reduction or elimination of waste from production processes) has become a goal for companies worldwide, with many realizing significant cost savings from such innovations. Peter Senge and Goran Carstedt see this development as laudable but suggest that simply adopting ecoefficiency innovations could actually worsen environmental stresses in the future. Such innovations reduce production waste but do not alter the number of products manufactured nor the waste generated from their use and discard; indeed, most companies invest in ecoefficiency improvements in order to increase profits and growth. Moreover, there is no guarantee that increased economic growth from ecoefficiency will come in similarly ecoefficient ways, since in today’s global markets, greater profits may be turned into investment capital that could easily be reinvested in old-style eco-inefficient industries. Even a vastly more ecoefficient industrial system could, were it to grow much larger, generate more total waste and destroy more habitat and species than would a smaller, less ecoefficient economy. Senge and Carstedt argue that to preserve the global environment and sustain economic growth, businesses must develop a new systemic approach that reduces total material use and total accumulated waste. Focusing exclusively on ecoefficiency, which offers a compelling business case according to established thinking, may distract companies from pursuing radically different products and business models.



1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) explain why a particular business strategy has been less successful than was once anticipated

(B) propose an alternative to a particular business strategy that has inadvertently caused ecological damage

(C) present a concern about the possible consequences of pursuing a particular business strategy

(D) make a case for applying a particular business strategy on a larger scale than is currently practiced (C)

(E) suggest several possible outcomes of companies’ failure to understand the economic impact of a particular business strategy



2. The passage mentions which of the following as a possible consequence of companies’ realization of greater profits through ecoefficiency?

(A) The companies may be able to sell a greater number of products by lowering prices.

(B) The companies may be better able to attract investment capital in the global market.

(C) The profits may be reinvested to increase economic growth through ecoefficiency.

(D) The profits may be used as investment capital for industries that are not ecoefficient. (D)

(E) The profits may encourage companies to make further innovations in reducing production waste.



3. The passage implies that which of the following is a possible consequence of a company’s adoption of innovations that increase its ecoefficiency?

(A) Company profits resulting from such innovations may be reinvested in that company with no guarantee that the company will continue to make further improvements in ecoefficiency.

(B) Company growth fostered by cost savings from such innovations may allow that company to manufacture a greater number of products that will be used and discarded, thus worsening environmental stress.

(C) A company that fails to realize significant cost savings from such innovations may have little incentive to continue to minimize the environmental impact of its production processes.

(D) A company that comes to depend on such innovations to increase its profits and growth may be vulnerable in the global market to competition from old-style eco-inefficient industries. (B)

(E) A company that meets its ecoefficiency goals is unlikely to invest its increased profits in the development of new and innovative ecoefficiency measures.

女王的肥皂

In terrestrial environments, gravity places special demands on the cardiovascular systems of animals. Gravitational pressure can cause blood to pool in the lower regions of the body, making it difficult to circulate blood to critical organs such as the brain. Terrestrial snakes, in particular, exhibit adaptations that aid in circulating blood against the force of gravity.
The problem confronting terrestrial snakes is best illustrated by what happens to sea snakes when removed from their supportive medium. Because the vertical pressure gradients within the blood vessels are counteracted by similar pressure gradients in the surrounding water, the distribution of blood throughout the body of sea snakes remains about the same regardless of their orientation in space, provided they remain in the ocean. (Line 17-20When removed from the water and tilted at various angles with the head up, however, blood pressure at their midpoint drops significantly, and at brain level falls to zero. That many terrestrial snakes in similar spatial orientations do not experience this kind of circulatory failure suggests that certain adaptations enable them to regulate blood pressure more effectively in those orientations(整句话做主语).
One such adaptation is the closer proximity of the terrestrial snake’s heart to its head, which helps to ensure circulation to the brain, regardless of the snake’s orientation in space. The heart of sea snakes can be located near the middle of the body, a position that minimizes the work entailed in circulating blood to both extremities. In arboreal snakes, however, which dwell in trees and often assume a vertical posture, the average distance from the heart to the head can be as little as 15 percent of overall body length. Such a location requires that blood circulated to the tail of the snake travel a greater distance back to the heart,a problem solved by another adaptation. When climbing, arboreal snakes often pause momentarily to wiggle their bodies, causing waves of muscle contraction that advance from the lower torso to the head. By compressing the veins and forcing blood forward, these contractions apparently improve the flow of venous blood returning to the heart.

第一段， 就是 terrestrial snakes能在引力的作用下 circulate its blood.
第二段， 海蛇拿到陆地上，身子中部血压降一半， 头部为o. 但是陆地蛇就不是。这说明它们这方面 adaption了。
第二段，adaptions 包括两种， 1 closer priximity of heart to head. 2 wiggling and muscle contraction improve the flow of blood from tail to heart.

错误 24 错的又是结构  

18. The passage provides information in support of which of the following assertions?
(A) The disadvantages of an adaptation to a particular feature of an environment often outweigh the advantages of such an adaptation.
(B) An organism’s reaction to being placed in an environment to which it is not well adapted can sometimes illustrate the problems that have been solved by the adaptations of organisms indigenous to that environment.
(C) The effectiveness of an organism’s adaptation to a particular feature of its environment can only be evaluated by examining the effectiveness with which organisms of other species have adapted to a similar feature of a different environment.
(D) Organisms of the same species that inhabit strikingly different environments will often adapt in remarkably similar ways to the few features of those environments that are common.
(E) Different species of organisms living in the same environment will seldom adapt to features of that environment in the same way.

19. According to the passage, one reason that the distribution of blood in the sea snake changes little while the creature remains in the ocean is that
(A) the heart of the sea snake tends to be located near the center of its body
(B) pressure gradients in the water surrounding the sea snake counter the effects of vertical pressure gradients within its blood vessels
(C) the sea snake assumes a vertical posture less frequently than do the terrestrial and the arboreal snake
(D) the sea snake often relies on waves of muscle contractions to help move blood from the torso to the head
(E) the force of pressure gradients in the water surrounding the sea snake exceeds that of vertical pressure gradients within its circulatory system

20. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of species of terrestrial snakes that often need to assume a vertical posture?
(A) They are more likely to be susceptible to circulatory failure in vertical postures than are sea snakes.
(B) Their hearts are less likely to be located at the midpoint of their bodies than is the case with sea snakes.
(C) They cannot counteract the pooling of blood in lower regions of their bodies as effectively as sea snakes can.
(D) The blood pressure at their midpoint decreases significantly when they are tilted with their heads up.
(E) They are unable to rely on muscle contractions to move venous blood from the lower torso to the head.

21. The author describes the behavior of the circulatory system of sea snakes when they are removed from the ocean (see lines 17–20) primarily in order to
(A) illustrate what would occur in the circulatory system of terrestrial snakes without adaptations that enable them to regulate their blood pressure in vertical orientations
(B) explain why arboreal snakes in vertical orientations must rely on muscle contractions to restore blood pressure to the brain
(C) illustrate the effects of circulatory failure on the behavior of arboreal snakes
(D) illustrate the superiority of the circulatory system of the terrestrial snake to that of the sea snake
(E) explain how changes in spatial orientation can adversely affect the circulatory system of snakes with hearts located in relatively close proximity to their heads

22. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is a true statement about sea snakes?
(A) They frequently rely on waves of muscle contractions from the lower torso to the head to supplement the work of the heart.
(B) They cannot effectively regulate their blood pressure when placed in seawater and tilted at an angle with the head pointed downward.
(C) They are more likely to have a heart located in close proximity to their heads than are arboreal snakes.
(D) They become acutely vulnerable to the effects of gravitational pressure on their circulatory system when they are placed in a terrestrial environment.
(E) Their cardiovascular system is not as complicated as that of arboreal snakes.

23. The author suggests that which of the following is a disadvantage that results from the location of a snake’s heart in close proximity to its head?
(A) A decrease in the efficiency with which the snake regulates the flow of blood to the brain
(B) A decrease in the number of orientations in space that a snake can assume without loss of blood flow to the brain
(C) A decrease in blood pressure at the snake’s midpoint when it is tilted at various angles with its head up
(D) An increase in the tendency of blood to pool at the snake’s head when the snake is tilted at various angles with its head down
(E) An increase in the amount of effort required to distribute blood to and from the snake’s tail

24. The primary purpose of the third paragraph is to
(A) introduce a topic that is not discussed earlier in the passage
(B) describe a more efficient method of achieving an effect discussed in the previous paragraph
(C) draw a conclusion based on information elaborated in the previous paragraph
(D) discuss two specific examples of phenomena mentioned at the end of the previous paragraph
(E) introduce evidence that undermines a view reported earlier in the passage
certain adaptations enable them to regulate blood pressure more effectively in those orientations 这里已经说来了。所以 第三段就是adaption 的具体展开。


In terrestrial environments, gravity places special demands on the cardiovascular systems of animals. Gravitational pressure can cause blood to pool in the lower regions of the body, making it difficult to circulate blood to critical organs such as the brain. Terrestrial snakes, in particular, exhibit adaptations that aid in circulating blood against the force of gravity.

The problem confronting terrestrial snakes is best illustrated by what happens to sea snakes when removed from their supportive medium. Because the vertical pressure gradients within the blood vessels are counteracted by similar pressure gradients in the surrounding water, the distribution of blood throughout the body of sea snakes remains about the same regardless of their orientation in space, provided they remain in the ocean. (Line 17-20When removed from the water and tilted at various angles with the head up, however, blood pressure at their midpoint drops significantly, and at brain level falls to zero. That many terrestrial snakes in similar spatial orientations do not experience this kind of circulatory failure suggests that certain adaptations enable them to regulate blood pressure more effectively in those orientations.

One such adaptation is the closer proximity of the terrestrial snake’s heart to its head, which helps to ensure circulation to the brain, regardless of the snake’s orientation in space. The heart of sea snakes can be located near the middle of the body, a position that minimizes the work entailed in circulating blood to both extremities. In arboreal snakes, however, which dwell in trees and often assume a vertical posture, the average distance from the heart to the head can be as little as 15 percent of overall body length. Such a location requires that blood circulated to the tail of the snake travel a greater distance back to the heart, a problem solved by another adaptation. When climbing, arboreal snakes often pause momentarily to wiggle their bodies, causing waves of muscle contraction that advance from the lower torso to the head. By compressing the veins and forcing blood forward, these contractions apparently improve the flow of venous blood returning to the heart.



18. The passage provides information in support of which of the following assertions?

(A) The disadvantages of an adaptation to a particular feature of an environment often outweigh the advantages of such an adaptation.

(B) An organism’s reaction to being placed in an environment to which it is not well adapted can sometimes illustrate the problems that have been solved by the adaptations of organisms indigenous to that environment.

(C) The effectiveness of an organism’s adaptation to a particular feature of its environment can only be evaluated by examining the effectiveness with which organisms of other species have adapted to a similar feature of a different environment.

(D) Organisms of the same species that inhabit strikingly different environments will often adapt in remarkably similar ways to the few features of those environments that are common. (B)

(E) Different species of organisms living in the same environment will seldom adapt to features of that environment in the same way.



19. According to the passage, one reason that the distribution of blood in the sea snake changes little while the creature remains in the ocean is that

(A) the heart of the sea snake tends to be located near the center of its body

(B) pressure gradients in the water surrounding the sea snake counter the effects of vertical pressure gradients within its blood vessels

(C) the sea snake assumes a vertical posture less frequently than do the terrestrial and the arboreal snake

(D) the sea snake often relies on waves of muscle contractions to help move blood from the torso to the head (B)

(E) the force of pressure gradients in the water surrounding the sea snake exceeds that of vertical pressure gradients within its circulatory system



20. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of species of terrestrial snakes that often need to assume a vertical posture?

(A) They are more likely to be susceptible to circulatory failure in vertical postures than are sea snakes.

(B) Their hearts are less likely to be located at the midpoint of their bodies than is the case with sea snakes.

(C) They cannot counteract the pooling of blood in lower regions of their bodies as effectively as sea snakes can.

(D) The blood pressure at their midpoint decreases significantly when they are tilted with their heads up. (B)

(E) They are unable to rely on muscle contractions to move venous blood from the lower torso to the head.



21. The author describes the behavior of the circulatory system of sea snakes when they are removed from the ocean (see lines 17–20) primarily in order to

(A) illustrate what would occur in the circulatory system of terrestrial snakes without adaptations that enable them to regulate their blood pressure in vertical orientations

(B) explain why arboreal snakes in vertical orientations must rely on muscle contractions to restore blood pressure to the brain

(C) illustrate the effects of circulatory failure on the behavior of arboreal snakes

(D) illustrate the superiority of the circulatory system of the terrestrial snake to that of the sea snake (A)

(E) explain how changes in spatial orientation can adversely affect the circulatory system of snakes with hearts located in relatively close proximity to their heads



22. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is a true statement about sea snakes?

(A) They frequently rely on waves of muscle contractions from the lower torso to the head to supplement the work of the heart.

(B) They cannot effectively regulate their blood pressure when placed in seawater and tilted at an angle with the head pointed downward.

(C) They are more likely to have a heart located in close proximity to their heads than are arboreal snakes.

(D) They become acutely vulnerable to the effects of gravitational pressure on their circulatory system when they are placed in a terrestrial environment. (D)

(E) Their cardiovascular system is not as complicated as that of arboreal snakes.



23. The author suggests that which of the following is a disadvantage that results from the location of a snake’s heart in close proximity to its head?

(A) A decrease in the efficiency with which the snake regulates the flow of blood to the brain

(B) A decrease in the number of orientations in space that a snake can assume without loss of blood flow to the brain

(C) A decrease in blood pressure at the snake’s midpoint when it is tilted at various angles with its head up

(D) An increase in the tendency of blood to pool at the snake’s head when the snake is tilted at various angles with its head down (E)

(E) An increase in the amount of effort required to distribute blood to and from the snake’s tail



24. The primary purpose of the third paragraph is to

(A) introduce a topic that is not discussed earlier in the passage

(B) describe a more efficient method of achieving an effect discussed in the previous paragraph

(C) draw a conclusion based on information elaborated in the previous paragraph

(D) discuss two specific examples of phenomena mentioned at the end of the previous paragraph (D)

(E) introduce evidence that undermines a view reported earlier in the passage