督促自己写OG阅读分析

阿尔的阳光

    Conodonts, the spiky phosphatic remains (bones and teeth composed of calcium phosphate) of tiny marine animals that probably appeared about 520million years ago, were once among the most controversial of fossils. Both the nature of the organism to which the remains belonged and the function of there mains were unknown. However, since the 1981 discovery of fossils preserving not just the phosphatic elements but also other remains of the tiny soft-bodied animals (also called conodonts) that bore them,scientists' reconstructions of the animals' anatomy have had important implications for hypotheses concerning the development of the vertebrate skeleton.    Conodonts,一种大约出现在520万年前的海洋生物的尖的含磷酸盐的残留物（含磷酸盐的牙齿或者骨头），曾经是最具有争议的化石。因为这个化石曾经所属的有机体和它的功能都是未知的。然而，1981年一个既包含了磷酸盐元素又包含了支撑软体动物的其他残留物（也被称作  Conodonts，）的发现，科学家对动物解剖的重建，对关于脊椎动物的进化的假设有重要的实践意义。
    the vertebrate skeleton had traditionally been regarded as a defensive development, champions of this view postulating that it was only with the much later evolution of jaws that vertebrates became predators. The first vertebrates,which were soft-bodied, would have been easy prey for numerous invertebrate carnivores, especially if these early vertebrates were sedentary suspension feeders. Thus, traditionalists argued, these animals developed coverings of bony scales or plates, and teeth were secondary features, adapted from the protective bony scales. Indeed, externa! skeletons of this type are common among the well-known fossils of ostracoderms, jawless vertebrates that existed from approximately 500 to 400 million years ago.However, other paleontologists argued that many of the definitive characteristics of vertebrates, such as paired eyes and muscular and skeletal adaptations for active life, would not have evolved unless the first vertebrates were predatory. Teeth were more primitive than external armor according to this view, and the earliest vertebrates were predators.
    脊椎动物在传统理论中被认为是防御性进化，这个观点的支持者假设到：直到后来下巴的进化，脊椎动物才变成了捕食者。第一个脊椎动物，也是软体动物，将会是很容易被数目众多的非脊椎食肉动物捕猎的，尤其是这些早期的脊椎动物是长时间静态进食者。因此，传统观念持有者认为这些动物进化出覆盖骨鳞和骨板的外壳，而牙齿是由防御性的骨鳞进化而来的第二特征。确实，这种类型的外部骨架是O这种生物最知名的化石，O是生活在500到400万年前的没有下巴的脊椎动物。但是，其他古生物学家认为，很多脊椎动物的定义性特征，例如成对的眼睛，还有肌肉和骨骼类的为了有效生命的适应性都将不会进化除非，最初的脊椎动物都是捕猎者。根据这个观点，牙齿比外壳更加重要，早期的脊椎动物是捕猎者。
     The stiffening notochord along the back of the body, V-shaped muscle blocks along the sides, and posterior tail fins help to identify conodonts as among the most primitive of vertebrates. The lack of any mineralized structures apart from the elements in the mouth indicates that conodonts were moreprimitive than the armored jawless fishes such as the ostracoderms. It now appears that the hard parts that first evolved in the mouth of an animal improved its efficiency as a predator, and that aggression rather than protection was the driving force behind the origin of the vertebrate skeleton.
    背部坚硬的脊索，V形的肌肉在两边形成，和后面的尾鳍对在最早期的脊柱动物中进行conodonts鉴定有帮助。除了嘴中的牙齿，缺乏矿化的结构表明了，conodonts比外壳对于没有下巴鱼，比如O生物来说更古老。现在看来，动物最里面最先进化的坚硬部分加强了他作为捕猎者的效率，因此， 是aggression而非 protection 是导致脊椎骨架出现的重要力量。
文章脉络：

-提出Conodonts这个在科学家很有争议的fossil且解释原因，并说1981发现对相关研究有重要意义。
-关于脊椎动物的两方论点（并没有一方是1981发现得出结论的）
-分析发现，得出结论

阿尔的阳光

   When asteroids collide, some collisions cause an asteroid to spin faster others slow it down. If asteroids are all monoliths---single rocks---undergoing random collisions, a graph of their rotation rates should show a bell-shaped distribution with statistical "tails" of very fast and very slow rotators. If asteroids are rubble piles, however, the tail representing the very fast rotators would be missing, because any loose aggregate spinning faster than once every few hours (depending on the asteroid's bulk density) would fly apart. Researchers have discovered that all but five observed asteroids obey a strict limit on rate of rotation. The exceptions are all smaller than 200 meters in diameter, with an abrupt cutoff for asteroids larger than that.   当小行星发生撞击的时候，有的碰撞导致行星转得更快，而其他的碰撞会让它变慢。如果行星都是monoliths---整块的石头---经历随机碰撞，他们旋转率的图像应该是一个带有统计性非常快和非常慢的“尾巴”的bell形状分布。如果行星是成堆的，那么表现非常快的旋转将会消失。因为以大于每几小时一圈的速度旋转的松散集合体（取决于天体的密度）会飞散。研究者已经发现除了5个以外的行星在旋转率上遵守严格的限制。那些例外是直径小于200米的，突变的分割线隔开比这个尺寸大的行星。
   The evident conclusion---that asteroids larger than 200 meters across are multicomponent structures or rubble piles---agrees with recent computer modeling of collisions, which also finds a transition at that diameter. A collision can blast a large asteroid to bits, but after the collision those bits will usually move slower than their mutual escape velocity. Over several hours, gravity will reassemble all but the fastest pieces into a rubble pile. Because collisions among asteroids are relatively frequent, most large bodies have already suffered this fate. Conversely, most small asteroids should be monolithic,because impact fragments easily escape their feeble gravity.  
   显而易见的结论是---直径大于200米的行星是复杂结构或者成堆的--和最近的电脑碰撞模拟一致，这些碰撞也可以看到那个直径有一个过渡。碰撞能把大的行星炸成小片，但是碰撞之后这些小片通常以比他们的逃脱速度慢的速度运动。过了几个小时，重力把除了最快的那些碎片以外的碎片聚集在一起成堆。因为行星的碰撞是相对频繁的，大多数体积大的已经经历了这样的命运。相反的，大多数小的行星应该是整块石头的，因为碰撞的碎片很容易地逃离了他们的微弱重力。

阿尔的阳光

    Milankovitch proposed in the early twentieth century that the ice ages were caused by variations in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. For some time this theory was considered untestable, largely because there was no sufficiently precise chronology of the ice ages with which the orbital variations could be matched.   M在20世纪早期的时候Propose 冰河时代是由围绕着太阳的地球轨道上的变化造成的。一段时间内这个理论被认为不可证实，很大程度上是因为没有足够准确的冰川时期的年代和轨道变化被匹配。
    To establish such a chronology it is necessary to determine the relative amounts of land ice that existed at various times in the Earth’s past. A recent discovery makes such a determination possible: relative land-ice volume for a given period can be deduced from the ratio of two oxygen isotopes, 16 and 18, found in ocean sediments. Almost all the oxygen in water is oxygen 16, but a few molecules out of every thousand incorporate the heavier isotope 18. When an ice age begins, the continental ice sheets grow, steadily reducing the amount of water evaporated from the ocean that will eventually return to it. Because heavier isotopes tend to be left behind when water evaporates from the ocean surfaces, the remaining ocean water becomes progressively enriched in oxygen 18. The degree of enrichment can be determined by analyzing ocean sediments of the period, because these sediments are composed of calcium carbonate shells of marine organisms, shells that were constructed with oxygen atoms drawn from the surrounding ocean. The higher the ratio of oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 in a sedimentary specimen, the more land ice there was when the sediment was laid down.
  要建立这个年代表，必须确定在不同时期地球陆地上冰的量。最近的一个发现使得这个研究可行：特定时期内的相关的陆地冰量可以从海洋沉淀物中的含氧16和18的比值中推测出来。几乎所有水中的氧气是氧16形式，但是每一千的少量分子加入了重一些的氧18。当冰川时代开始，陆地开始结冰，持续地减少了在被蒸发之后能回到海洋的中的水。因为当水被蒸发的时候，重一点的元素容易被留下，因此海洋中剩下的水逐渐含18丰富起来。其丰富程度可以由分析海洋沉淀物来确定，因为这些沉淀物由海洋生物的calcium carbonate shells 组成，shells是由从周围水中的氧原子组成。样本中的18：16的比例越高，沉淀物形成的时候冰越厚。
    As an indicator of shifts in the Earth’s climate, the isotope record has two advantages. First, it is a global record: there is remarkably little variation in isotope ratios in sedimentary specimens taken from different continental locations. Second, it is a more continuous record than that taken from rocks on land. Because of these advantages, sedimentary evidence can be dated with sufficient accuracy by radiometric methods to establish a precise chronology of the ice ages. The dated isotope record shows that the fluctuations in global ice volume over the past several hundred thousand years have a pattern: an ice age occurs roughly once every 100,000 years. These data have established a strong connection between variations in the Earth’s orbit and the periodicity of the ice ages.
  作为一种地球气候变化的指示，isotope record有两大优点：1. it is a global record：不同大陆采集的样本变化不大2：比rocks上采集到的数据更加有延续性。因为这些优点，sedimentary evidence可以被用radiometric methods来确定准确年代，由此来建立一个精确的冰川时代的年代表。The dated isotope record表明冰量的变化在过去的几百几千年中有固定的式样：即冰川时期大约每隔10万年发生一次。这些日期在地球轨道变化和冰川时期的周期性之间建立一个很强的关联。    However, it is important to note that other factors, such as volcanic particulates or variations in the amount of sunlight received by the Earth, could potentially have affected the climate. The advantage of the Milankovitch theory is that it is testable; changes in the Earth’s orbit can be calculated and dated by applying Newton’s laws of gravity to progressively earlier configurations of the bodies in the solar system. Yet the lack of information about other possible factors affecting global climate does not make them unimportant.
   但是，注意到其他影响因素也很重要，比如火山微粒，地球收到的太阳光量，都可以影响到气候。M理论的优点就是它是可以被验证的；地球轨道的变化可以通过使用Newton’s laws of gravity来被计算和确定太阳系统渐进的早期configurations of the bodies。而缺少关于其他可能的气候影响因素的信息并不会使得上述结果失去价值



结构：提出一个理论，解释这个理论没有被证实的原因----提出最新研究使得这个理论有证实的方法，并详细阐述证实的方法和相关理论-----这个方法的两大优点--------但是也存在其他影响，但是几乎可以忽略，不影响上述方法的价值

阿尔的阳光

    Ecoefficiency (measures to minimize environmental impact through the reduction or elimination of waste from production processes) has become a goal for companies worldwide, with many realizing significant cost savings from such innovations. Peter Senge and Goran Carstedt see this development as laudable but suggest that simply adopting ecoefficiency innovations could actually worsen environmental stresses in the future. Such innovations reduce production waste but do not alter the number of products manufactured nor the waste generated from their use and discard; indeed, most companies invest in ecoefficiency improvements in order to increase profits and growth. Moreover, there is no guarantee that increased economic growth from ecoefficiency will come in similarly ecoefficient ways, since in today's global markets, greater profits may be turned into investment capital that could easily be reinvested in old-style eco-inefficient industries. Even a vastly more ecoefficient industrial system could, were it to grow much larger, generate more total waste and destroy more habitat and species than would a smaller, less ecoefficient economy. Senge and Carstedt argue that to preserve the global environment and sustain economic growth, businesses must develop a new systemic approach that reduces total material use and total accumulated waste. Focusing exclusively on ecoefficiency, which offers a compelling business case according to established thinking, may distract companies from pursuing radically different products and business models.
Ecoefficiency，已经成为了世界范围的公司的共同目标，其中很多公司从这些创新技术里实现了大量的费用节省。PS,和GC认为这些发展是值得称赞但是如果一味采取ecoefficiency innovations 会使得未来的环境压力更大。因为这些 innovations只是减少了生产环节的废物，但是却没有改变生产的产品的或是使用这些产品造成的丢弃废物的数量。确实大多数公司投资ecoefficiency improvements为了增加利润，而从这些ecoefficiency 增加的经济却不能保证又被投资到相似的ecoefficiency生产方式中中去。因为在今天的国际市场上，这些大的profits可能被变成对传统eco-inefficient产业的投资。即使即使是一个更加ecoefficient 的大产业能够比一个没有那么ecoefficient 的小的经济体 更加能够成长的更大，产生更大总的废物量然后摧毁更多的栖息地和物种。S和C认为为了保护地球环境和保持经济增长，这些经济需要开发一个可以减少物料使用和废物产生总量的新的系统方法。虽然依据已有的观点，ecoefficiency能够提供有竞争力的经营模式，但只是一味的专注在这种方法上，可能会分散公司追求完全不同产品的和经济模式的能力。

阿尔的阳光

    Archaeology as a profession faces two major problems. First, it is the poorest of the poor. Only paltry sums are available for excavating and even less is available for publishing the results and preserving the sites once excavated. Yet archaeologists deal with priceless objects every day. Second, there is the problem of illegal excavation, resulting in museum-quality pieces being sold to the highest bidder.   
    I would like to make an outrageous suggestion that would at one stroke provide funds for archaeology and reduce the amount of illegal digging. I would propose that scientific archaeological expeditions and governmental authorities sell excavated artifacts on the open market. Such sales would provide substantial funds for the excavation and preservation of archaeological sites and the publication of results. At the same time, they would break the illegal excavator’s grip on the market, thereby decreasing the inducement to engage in illegal activities
   我想提一个比较令人吃惊的建议，这个建议可以一次既减少非法digging的数量，又能为考古提供资金。我提议考古队和政府把那些挖掘出的艺术品公开售卖。这样销售所得可以为保存考古遗址和公开展览提供足够的资金。同时，他们也打破了非法盗掘在市场上的控制地位，由此减少了非法盗掘活动。
    You might object that professionals excavate to acquire knowledge, not money. Moreover, ancient artifacts are part of our global cultural heritage, which should be available for all to appreciate, not sold to the highest bidder. I agree. Sell nothing that has unique artistic merit or scientific value. But, you might reply, everything that comes out of the ground has scientific value. Here we part company. Theoretically, you may be correct in claiming that every artifact has potential scientific value. Practically, you are wrong.
   你可能会反对说专业考古是为了获取知识而不是钱。而且。古代的文物是全球共同的文化遗产的一部分，他们应该被所有人欣赏而不是卖给出价高的人。我对此表示同意，售卖没有独特艺术价值和科学研究价值的。但是你可能会质疑，从掩埋的地底下开采的任何东西都有科学价值。这个我部分同意，理论上来说，你认为的每一样工艺品都有潜在的科学研究价值。而实际上来说，你错了。
    I refer to the thousands of pottery vessels and ancient lamps that are essentially duplicates of one another. In one small excavation in Cyprus, archaeologists recently uncovered 2,000 virtually indistinguishable small jugs in a single courtyard. Even precious royal seal impressions known as l’melekh handles have been found in abundance —more than 4,000 examples so far.The basements of museums are simply not large enough to store the artifacts that are likely to be discovered in the future. There is not enough money even to catalog the finds; as a result, they cannot be found again and become as inaccessible as if they had never been discovered. Indeed, with the help of a computer, sold artifacts could be more accessible than are the pieces stored in bulging museum basements. Prior to sale, each could be photographed and the list of the purchasers could be maintained on the computer. A purchaser could even be required to agree to return the piece if it should become needed for scientific purposes.
   我指的是那些成千上万的一模一样的陶瓷器皿和古代灯饰。在 Cyprus的一个发掘中，archaeologists 发掘出了2000个几乎没有分别的小jugs.即使以 l’melekh handles 闻名的皇家记号也被大量发现---超过4000件。博物馆的地下室不够储存不久之后要出土的文物。也没有足够的钱去将这些发现分类。结果就是，他们再不能被找到，就像从来没被发掘过一样。
It would be unrealistic to suggest that illegal digging would stop if artifacts were sold on the open market. But the demand for the clandestine product would be substantially reduced. Who would want an unmarked pot when another was available whose provenance was known, and that was dated stratigraphically by the professional archaeologist who excavated it?
结构：two problems that A face---1.insufficient funds 2.illegal excavation
         a proposal based on this situation-----to sell excavated artifacts on markets to fund further excavation or perservation
         some doubs about the proposal
         explain details

阿尔的阳光

    In the seventeenth-century Florentine textile industry, women were employed primarily in low paying, low-skill jobs. To explain this segregation of labor by gender, economists have relied on the useful theory of human capital. According to this theory, investment in human capital—the acquisition of difficult job-related skills—generally benefits individuals by making them eligible to engage in well-paid occupations. Women’s role as child bearers, however, results in interruptions in their participation in the job market (as compared with men’s) and thus reduces their opportunities to acquire training for highly skilled work. In addition, the human capital theory explains why there was a high concentration of women workers in certain low-skill jobs, such as weaving, but not in others, such as combing or carding, by positing that because of their primary responsibility in child rearing women took occupations that could be carried out in the home.There were, however, differences in pay scales that cannot be explained by the human capital theory. For example, male construction workers were paid significantly higher wages than female taffeta weavers. The wage difference between these two low-skill occupations stems from the segregation of labor by gender: because a limited number of occupations were open to women, there was a large supply of workers in their fields, and this "overcrowding" resulted in women receiving lower wages and men receiving higher wages.
structure:
--to explain why women employed in seventeenth-century Florentine textile industry were concentrented in low paying, low sikll jobs.
--economists cites theroy HC to explain: 1.Women’s role barred the acquisition of benifits from human capital(compared to men)2.Women can only do the jobs that can be completed at home since their primary responsibility is child rearing.
--Some things cannot be explained by HC theroy:difference in pay scale of the same job conducted by men and women.
--explain the cause of the differnces: limited jobs open to women but the candidates pool is large,so the competition within the group is more serious than that among men workers.

阿尔的阳光

    After evidence was obtained in the 1920s that the universe is expanding, it became reasonable to ask: Will the universe continue to expand indefinitely, or is there enough mass in it for the mutual attraction of its constituents to bring this expansion to a halt? It can be calculated that the critical density of matter needed to brake the expansion and "close" the universe is equivalent to three hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. But the density of the observable universe-luminous matter in the form of galaxies-comes to only a fraction of this. If the expansion of the universe is to stop, there must be enough invisible matter in the universe to exceed the luminous matter in density by a factor of roughly 70.
    Our contribution to the search for this "missing matter" has been to study the rotational velocity of galaxies at various distances from their center of rotation. It has been known for some time that outside the bright nucleus of a typical spiral galaxy luminosity falls off rapidly with distance from the center. If luminosity were a true indicator of mass, most of the mass would be concentrated toward the center. Outside the nucleus the rotational velocity would decrease geometrically with distance from the center, in conformity with Kepler's law. Instead we have found that the rotational velocity in spiral galaxies either remains constant with increasing distance from the center or increases slightly. This unexpected result indicates that the falloff in luminous mass with distance from the center is balanced by an increase in nonluminous mass.
    Our findings suggest that as much as 90 percent of the mass of the universe is not radiating at any wavelength with enough intensity to be detected on the Earth. Such dark matter could be in the form of extremely dim stars of low mass, of large planets like Jupiter, or of black holes, either small or massive. While it has not yet been determined whether this mass is sufficient to close the universe, some physicists consider it significant that estimates are converging on the critical value.

结构：
---raise Q:will the universe continue to expend indefinitely? If yes, invisible matter must exsits.
---Findings indicate invisible matter exsits
---conclusion:90% of the mass in universe is invisible.Though has not been determined whether the mass being study sufficient engouh to stop the expansion.

阿尔的阳光

What kinds of property rights apply to Algonquian family hunting territories, and how did they come to be? The dominant view in recent decades has been that family hunting territories, like other forms of private landownership, were not found among Algonquians (a group of North American Indian tribes) before contact with Europeans but are the result of changes in Algonquian society brought about by the European-Algonquian fur trade, in combination with other factors such as ecological changes and consequent shifts in wildlife harvesting patterns. Another view claims that Algonquian family hunting territories predate contact with Europeans and are forms of private landownership by individuals and families. More recent fieldwork, however, has shown that individual and family rights to hunting territories form part of a larger land-use system of multifamilial hunting groups, that rights to hunting territories at this larger community level take precedence over those at the individual or family level, and that this system reflects a concept of spiritual and social reciprocity that conflicts with European concepts of private property. In short, there are now strong reasons to think that it was erroneous to claim that Algonquian family hunting territories ever were, or were becoming, a kind of private property system.

structure:
---Raise Q: what's the property and the oringins of the rights applied to A family hunting territories
---Two views:A--not formed before contact with E ,result of the changes in A society.
                   B--formed before contact with E, privite landonwership

---Recent finding--Rights of Large land-use take precedence over those at privite level, reflects of a concept that conflicts with privite property.
--conclusion--wrong to claim A family hunting territories rights are/were private property

阿尔的阳光

     Anole lizard species that occur together (sympatrically) on certain Caribbean islands occupy different habitats: some live only in the grass, some only on tree trunks, and some only on twigs. These species also differ morphologically: grass dwellers are slender with long tails, tree dwellers are stocky with long legs, twig dwellers are slender but stubby-legged. What is striking about these lizards is not that coexisting species differ in morphology and habitat use (such differences are common among closely related sympatric species), but that the same three types of habitat specialists occur on each of four islands: Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hispaniola, and Jamaica. Moreover, the Puerto Rican twig species closely resembles the twig species of Cuba, Hispaniola, and Jamaica in morphology, habitat use, and behavior. Likewise, the specialists for other habitats are similar across the islands. The presence of similar species on different islands could be variously explained. An ancestral species might have adapted to exploit a particular ecological niche on one island and then traveled over water to colonize other islands. Or this ancestral species might have evolved at a time when the islands were connected, which some of these islands may once have been. After the islands separated, the isolated lizard populations would have become distinct species while also retaining their ancestors’ niche adaptations. Both of these scenarios imply that specialization to each niche occurred only once. Alternatively, each specialist could have arisen independently on each of the islands.
    If each type of specialist evolved just once, then similar specialists on different islands would be closely related. Conversely, if the specialists evolved independently on each island, then a specialist on one island would be more closely related to other types of anoles on the same island—regardless of their ecological niches— than it would be to a similar specialist on a different island. Biologists can infer how species are related evolutionarily by comparing DNA sequences for the same genes in different species. Species with similar DNA sequences for these genes are generally more closely related to each other than to species with less-similar DNA sequences. DNA evidence concerning the anoles led researchers to conclude that habitat specialists on one island are not closely related to the same habitat specialists elsewhere, indicating that specialists evolved independently on each island.

bigbaox

加油lz，8号刚考完输了，唉，阅读是gmat之根本，也拿出og开始分析了！