督促自己写OG阅读分析

阿尔的阳光

我会在这里写自己做的OG上面的阅读框架，开帖子是为了督促自己，有兴趣的战友可以参加分析，提出意见和分析

2018-5-6

Jon Clark’s study of the effect of the modernization of a telephone exchange on exchange maintenance work and workers is a solid contribution to a debate that encompasses two lively issues in the history and sociology of technology: technological determinism and social constructivism.Clark makes the point that the characteristics of a technology have a decisive influence on job skills and work organization. Put more strongly, technology can be a primary determinant of social and managerial organization. Clark believes this possibility has been obscured by the recent sociological fashion, exemplified by Braverman’s analysis, that emphasizes the way machinery reflects social choices. For Braverman, the shape of a technological system is subordinate to the manager’s desire to wrest control of the labor process from the workers. Technological change is construed as the outcome of negotiations among interested parties who seek to incorporate their own interests into the design and configuration of the machinery. This position represents the new mainstream called social constructivism.

The constructivists gain acceptance by misrepresenting technological determinism: technological determinists are supposed to believe, for example, that machinery imposes appropriate forms of order on society. The alternative to constructivism, in other words, is to view technology as existing outside society, capable of directly influencing skills and work organization.Clark refutes the extremes of the constructivists by both theoretical and empirical arguments. Theoretically he defines "technology" in terms of relationships between social and technical variables. Attempts to reduce the meaning of technology to cold, hard metal are bound to fail, for machinery is just scrap unless it is organized functionally and supported by appropriate systems of operation and maintenance. At the empirical level Clark shows how a change at the telephone exchange from maintenance-intensive electromechanical switches to semi-electronic switching systems altered work tasks, skills, training opportunities, administration, and organization of workers. Some changes Clark attributes to the particular way management and labor unions negotiated the introduction of the technology, whereas others are seen as arising from the capabilities and nature of the technology itself. Thus Clark helps answer the question: "When is social choice decisive and when are the concrete characteristics of technology more important?"

翻译和结构分析：

第一段

Clark的study对一个包含两种观点的争辩有巨大贡献

提出Clark的观点：the characteristics of a technology have a decisive influence on job skills and work organization

也就是说technology是社会和管理组织的决定性因素，但是这种可能性被最近的一个主流观点所掩盖了。举B的例子来证明：B认为technological system的形成是从属于manager’s desire。technology被认为是利益parities向technology植入自己利益的结果。

第二段

constructivists获取接纳的手段是通过错误地假设和理解对方观点的方式来达到。也就是说，取代constructivism的观点（T观点）是视technology as existing outside societycapable of directly influencing skills and work organization。

Clark对constructivists的极端观点进行理论和实验性的反驳。理论上他以social和technical variables的关系来定义"technology”。实验性方面Clark shows maintenance-intensive electromechanical switches to semi-electronic switching systems 的改变如何发生。后者改变了工作，技巧，培训机会。。。

有些变革Clark归因于unions引进technology的特殊方式造成，而其他的则是 technology 自身的能力和属性造成。

这样Clark回答了这个问题："When is social choice decisive and when are the concrete characteristics of technology more important?"

onlybbh

支持！这篇我做的时候就觉得好难TAT

阿尔的阳光

onlybbh 发表于 2018-5-6 21:28
支持！这篇我做的时候就觉得好难TAT

真的难，我做第二遍了7道题目还是错了两道，只是文章能基本读懂了

阿尔的阳光

    According to a recent theory, Archean-age gold-quartz vein systems were formed more than two billion years ago from magmatic fluids that originated from molten granite-like bodies deep beneath the surface of the Earth. This theory is contrary to the widely held view that the systems were deposited from metamorphic fluids, that is, from fluids that formed during the dehydration of wet sedimentary rocks.
    The recently developed theory has considerable practical importance. Most of the gold deposits discovered during the original gold rushes were exposed at the Earth's surface and were found because they had shed trails of alluvial gold that were easily traced by simple prospecting methods. Although these same methods still lead to an occasional discovery, most deposits not yet discovered have gone undetected because they are buried and have no surface expression.The challenge in exploration is therefore to unravel the subsurface geology of an area and pinpoint the position of buried minerals. Methods widely used today include analysis of aerial images that yield a broad geological overview; geophysical techniques that provide data on the magnetic, electrical, and mineralogical properties of the rocks being investigated; and sensitive chemical tests that are able to detect the subtle chemical halos that often envelop mineralization. However, none of these high-technology methods are of any value if the sites to which they are applied have never mineralized, and to maximize the chances of discovery the explorer must therefore pay particular attention to selecting the ground formations most likely to be mineralized. Such ground selection relies to varying degrees on conceptual models, which take into account theoretical studies of relevant factors.
These models are constructed primarily from empirical observations of known mineral deposits and from theories of ore-forming processes. The explorer uses the models to identify those geological features that are critical to the formation of the mineralization being modeled, and then tries to select areas for exploration that exhibit as many of the critical features as possible.
第一段：
依据最新的理论，AG vein systems 是more than two billion years ago ，从深埋在地表的molten granite-like bodies形成的岩浆流中形成的。这个理论和广泛被接受的观点---即systems 是由潮湿沉积岩脱水中过程中形成，背道而驰
第二段
最新发展的理论有很大的实际的重要性。大多数在最初淘金热中被发现的金矿都是暴露在地表，且被发现是因为这些金矿流露出了沙金的踪迹，而这些沙金踪迹是很容易被简单的探矿方法所追踪到的。尽管这些办法仍然能导致偶然的发现，大多数没被发现的矿是不能被检测到的，因为他们没有地表表达（特征？）。因此探矿中的挑战是揭示一个区域地表下面的地质和标记被埋的矿产位置。今天广泛运用的方法包括:分析....geophysical techniques.......sensitive chemical tests ......然而，如果运用高科技手段探测的那个地点没有被矿化，这些高科技手段将没有任何价值，为了最大化发现几率， the explorer 要特别注意选择最可能被矿化的地面。这样的选择依靠被考虑进相关因素理论研究的conceptual models。
第三段
这些models主要是从对已知的矿产的实验观察和ore-forming processes的理论中建立起来。 the explorer运用这些models来对在正被modeled的矿化形成很重要的地质特征进行鉴定，然后选择展现出尽可能多的重要特征的地区进行勘探。

阿尔的阳光

While the most abundant and dominant species within a particular ecosystem is often crucial in perpetuating the ecosystem, a "keystone" species, here defined as one whose effects are much larger than would be predicted from its abundance, can also play a vital role. But because complex species interactions may be involved, identifying a keystone species by removing the species and observing changes in the ecosystem is problematic. It might seem that certain traits would clearly define a species as a keystone species; for example, Pisaster ochraceus is often a keystone predator because it consumes and suppresses mussel populations, which in the absence of this starfish can be a dominant species. But such predation on a dominant or potentially dominant species occurs in systems that do as well as in systems that do not have species that play keystone roles. Moreover, whereas P. ochraceus occupies an unambiguous keystone role on wave-exposed rocky headlands, in more wave-sheltered habitats the impact of P. ochraceus predation is weak or nonexistent, and at certain sites sand burial is responsible for eliminating mussels. Keystone status appears to depend on context, whether of particular geography or of such factors as community diversity (for example, a reduction in species diversity may thrust more of the remaining species into keystone roles) and length of species interaction (since newly arrived species in particular may dramatically affect ecosystems).
在一个ecosystem里，最大，最占主导地位的种群通常对保持这个生态系统有很重要的作用。a "keystone" species，也起一定作用，这个种族这里定义为它的影响不只是从数量充足上来说。但是因为有复杂的种群之间的互动参与其中，确定a keystone species只是通过 removing the species and observing changes in the ecosystem 是有问题的。看起来好像某些特征能够清楚地定义一个种群为"keystone" species，比如，PO 通常来说是一个keystone predator因为他捕猎和超过了mussel populations，而mussel这个种群在PO这种starfish不存在的情况下，能成为主导地位的种群。但是这种对主要种群或者次主要种群的捕猎在有或者没有担任主要角色的生态系统里面都会发生。而且，尽管PO在wave-exposed rocky headlands扮演一个模糊的 keystone role，in more wave-sheltered habitats ，PO的影响就非常弱或者不存在，而且在某些区域， sand burial才是导致mussels消灭的原因。Keystone status似乎是根据环境的不同，是否是特定的地质，或者有类似community diversity（例如，community diversity的减少会逼迫剩下的种群扮演keystone roles。）和种群之间互动的长度（因为新进的种群可能会对生态系统造成剧烈的影响），这样的因素。


结构：
提出Keystone的概念---提出鉴定Keystone的一种实验的看法（认为这个实验方法有问题）----具体阐述影响Keystone角色的因素，从而支持之前的论点。---总结影响Keystone roles的因素

阿尔的阳光

     The majority of successful senior managers do not closely follow the classical rational model of first clarifying goals, assessing the problem, formulating options, estimating likelihoods of success, making a decision, and only then taking action to implement the decision. Rather, in their day-by-day tactical maneuvers, these senior executives rely on what is vaguely termed "intuition" to manage a network of interrelated problems that require them to deal with ambiguity, inconsistency, novelty, and surprise; and to integrate action into the process of thinking.         大多数的senior managers并不closely follow 先目标分类，分析问题，形成选择，预计成功几率，决策，然后再实施决定，这样的经典理性模型
     相反，在他们日常的战术实施中，这些senior executives依靠的是一个被模糊的被称作"intuition" 来管理相互关联的问题，这些问题需要这些senior executives处理得模糊，随机应变，新颖，有惊喜，把action和思考过程一体化。
     Generations of writers on management have recognized that some practicing managers rely heavily on intuition. In general, however, such writers display a poor grasp of what intuition is. Some see it as the opposite of rationality; others view it as an excuse for capriciousness.
     management的几代作者已经认识到有一些实经理非常依赖intuition。但总体来说，这些作者却并没有抓住 到底什么是intuition。有些把它看成是理性的反面，其他人则认为是反复无常的借口
     Isenberg’s recent research on the cognitive processes of senior managers reveals that managers’ intuition is neither of these. Rather, senior managers use intuition in at least five distinct ways. First, they intuitively sense when a problem exists. Second, managers rely on intuition to perform well-learned behavior patterns rapidly. This intuition is not arbitrary or irrational, but is based on years of painstaking practice and hands-on experience that build skills. A third function of intuition is to synthesize isolated bits of data and practice into an integrated picture, often in an "Aha!" experience. Fourth, some managers use intuition as a check on the results of more rational analysis. Most senior executives are familiar with the formal decision analysis models and tools, and those who use such systematic methods for reaching decisions are occasionally leery of solutions suggested by these methods which run counter to their sense of the correct course of action. Finally, managers can use intuition to bypass in-depth analysis and move rapidly to engender a plausible solution. Used in this way, intuition is an almost instantaneous cognitive process in which a manager recognizes familiar patterns.
   I 关于senior managers的认知过程的最新研究揭示了以上都不是managers’ intuition。相反，senior managers有五个不同的方式来执行intuition。
1.凭直觉感知问题，2，凭过往成功经验造成的直觉先迅速行动，3同步那些孤立和散落的数据和实践到一个完整的picture，常出现在 "Aha!" 这样的情况下。4，有些经理把intuition用作是一个检验理性决策结果的办法5，经理用intuition来绕过深度分析，然后迅速move产生一个可能的解决方案。
     One of the implications of the intuitive style of executive management is that "thinking" is inseparable from acting. Since managers often "know" what is right before they can analyze and explain it, they frequently act first and explain later. Analysis is  tied to action in thinking/acting cycles, in which managers develop thoughts about their companies and organizations not by analyzing a problematic situation and then acting, but by acting and analyzing in close concert. Given the great uncertainty of many of the management issues that they face, senior managers often instigate a course of action simply to learn more about an issue. They then use the results of the action to develop a more complete understanding of the issue. One implication of thinking/acting cycles is that action is often part of defining the problem, not just of implementing the solution.
  intuitive style 的其中一个应用是 思考和行动是不可分离的。因为经理通常在他们进行分析和解释之前就“知道”什么时候对的，他们常常先行动然后解释。分析是和在思考/行动 循环中的action捆绑在一起的，在这个循环中，经理们产生关于他们公司和组织的想法并不是通过分析有问题的情况，然后行动，而是行动然后通过紧密协作进行分析。考虑到很多面对的不确定性，senior managers 常常发起一连串行动只是为了了解一件事情的更多信息。然后他们用行动的结果来发展出对这件事的更加完整的understanding。分析是和在思考/行动 循环其中一个应用是 行动常常是定义问题的一部分，而不是实施解决方案。





结构：
提出一个大多数经理其实都不用经典理性模型解决问题而是另一个叫做"intuition"的模式----再说几个作者关于对"intuition"的认知并批判他们并不了解什么叫"intuition"---提出I 作者的研究支持自己前面的观点---详细解释研究内容和关于这个模式的具体应用，以及它与传统理性的模式区别。

阿尔的阳光

       Frazier and Mosteller assert that medical research could be improved by a move toward larger, simpler clinical trials of medical treatments. Currently, researchers collect far more background information on patients than is strictly required for their trials-substantially more than hospitals collect-thereby escalating costs of data collection, storage, and analysis. Although limiting information collection could increase the risk that researchers will overlook facts relevant to a study, Frazier and Mosteller contend that such risk, never entirely eliminable from research, would still be small in most studies. Only in research on entirely new treatments are new and unexpected variables likely to arise.
       Frazier and Mosteller propose not only that researchers limit data collection on individual patients but also that researchers enroll more patients in clinical trials, thereby obtaining a more representative sample of the total population with the disease under study. Often researchers restrict study participation to patients who have no ailments besides those being studied. A treatment judged successful under these ideal conditions can then be evaluated under normal conditions. Broadening the range of trial participants, Frazier and Mosteller suggest, would enable researchers to evaluate a treatment's efficacy for diverse patients under various conditions and to evaluate its effectiveness for different patient subgroups. For example, the value of a treatment for a progressive disease may vary according to a patient's stage of disease. Patients' ages may also affect a treatment’s efficacy.
  F&M 声称通过朝一个更大，更简单的临床试验，实验医疗研究可以被改善。现在，很多研究者收集了远多过他们研究需要的关于病患的背景信息，实质上比医院搜集的还多，因此增加了搜集，储存和分析data的费用。尽管，减少收集信息会增加研究者忽略研究相关事实的风险，F&M认为这种分析，从来不会被完全消灭，而且会存在很多研究中。只有对new treatments 的研究，新的和不可预知的变量才会上升。
  F&M 不仅propose researchers要减少对病患个体的信息收集，还propose researchers要把更多的病患作为临床试验对象，这样来获得对于在研究的疾病相对整体人口更有代表性的样本。researchers通常把参与研究的对象限制在那些除了被正在被研究的病情没有其他疾病的病患中。A treatment在这些理想情况下能够被 成功evaluated 的也能在普通情况下被evaluated。  F&M表示，拓宽实验参与者的范围，能使researchers evaluate treatments 在不同病患中的不同情况下的效用，也evaluate treatments对不同病患群体的效用。例如，对于一个有过程的疾病，a treatment的价值会随着病患的患病阶段不同而不同。病患的年纪也会影响 treatments的功效。


结构：
提出  F&M对目前临床试验的具体方法的一个看法，-----具体阐述反对的原因----提出  F&M的改善建议以及阐述详细内容

阿尔的阳光

    Because the framers of the United States Constitution (written in 1787) believed that protecting property rights relating to inventions would encourage the new nation’s economic growth, they gave Congress—the national legislature—a constitutional mandate to grant patents for inventions. The resulting patent system has served as a model for those in other nations. Recently, however, scholars have questioned whether the American system helped achieve the framers’ goals. These scholars have contended that from 1794 to roughly 1830, American inventors were unable to enforce property rights because judges were “antipatent” and routinely invalidated patents for arbitrary reasons. This argument is based partly on examination of court decisions in cases where patent holders (“patentees”)brought suit alleging infringement of their patent rights. In the 1820s, for instance, 75 percent of verdicts were decided against the patentee.The proportion of verdicts for the patentee began to increase in the 1830s, suggesting to these scholars that judicial attitudes toward patent rights began shifting then. The framers 相信保护发明相关的权利会对新国家的经济起到促进作用，他们给了congress（国家立法委员会）一个宪法性命令以便对发明授予专利权。由此产生的专利权系统是其他国家专利系统的模范。但是最近，有学者质疑是否这个系统帮助framers达到了他们的目标。这些学者们认为从1794年到1830年，美国发明者不能够行使自己的财产权，因为法官们“反专利”和因为随意的原因 routinely使得专利无效。这个结论是部分基于对那些（专利权享有人向法庭提起诉讼的声称自己的专利权受到侵害的）案件法庭判决的检查和研究。在1820年代，比如说，75%的裁决最后的判决都是不利于专利享有人。而有利于专利享有人的裁决比例从1830年代开始上升，对于那些学者们来说，这意味着对于专利权的司法态度从那时开始转变。
    Not all patent disputes in the early nineteenth entury were litigated, however, and litigated cases were not drawn randomly from the population of disputes. Therefore the rate of verdicts in favor of patentees cannot be used by itself to gauge changes in judicial attitudes or enforceability of patent rights. If early judicial decisions were prejudiced against patentees, one might expect that subsequent courts—allegedly more supportive of patent rights—would reject the former legal precedents. But pre-1830 cases have been cited as frequently as later decisions, and they continue to be cited today,suggesting that the early decisions, many of which clearly declared that patent rights were a just recompense for inventive ingenuity,provided a lasting foundation for patent law.The proportion of judicial decisions in favor of patentees began to increase during the 1830s because of a change in the underlying population of cases brought to trial. This change was partly due to an 1836 revision to the patent system:an examination procedure, still in use today, was instituted in which each application is scrutinized for its adherence to patent law. Previously,patents were automatically granted upon payment of a $30 fee.
并不是所有的19世纪早期的专利权争夺都会到法庭诉讼，然而，又因为法庭诉讼的案子并不是随机抽取，因此，这个有利于专利人的判决率本身并不能用来衡量司法态度的改变或者专利权的行使力度。如果早期的决定是不利于专利人的，那么后期的裁决（被认为是更支持专利权的）会拒接先例。但是 1830年代以前的案子仍然被频繁的引用到后来的判决里，而且他们持续被延用到今天，这表示早期的判决，其中很多证明了专利权不过是发明智慧的一个补充，给专利法提供了持续的基础。司法裁决有利于专利人从1830年代开始增加是因为一个被提起法庭诉讼案件的潜在基数的改变。这个改变部分是因为1836年修正了专利系统：一个仍被沿用至今的检查过程被开始设立，在这个程序中，每一个申请者都会对他和专利法的关联度进行检查。而在之前，专利是在 $30费用的基础上自动被给予的。


结构：
背景---提出学者对一些事实的质疑---分别对这些质疑进行反驳同时提出自己的观点

阿尔的阳光

    Most attempts by physicists to send particles faster than the speed of light involve a remarkable phenomenon called quantum tunneling, in which particles travel through solid barriers that appear to be impenetrable. If you throw a ball at a wall, you expect it to bounce back, not to pass straight through it. Yet subatomic particles perform the equivalent feat. Quantum theory says that there is a distinct, albeit small, probability that such a particle will tunnel its way through a barrier; the probability declines exponentially as the thickness of the barrier increases. Though the extreme rapidity of quantum tunneling was noted as early as 1932, not until 1955 was it hypothesized—by Wigner and Eisenbud—that tunneling particles sometimes travel faster than light. Their grounds were calculations that suggested that the time it takes a particle to tunnel through a barrier increases with the thickness of the barrier until tunneling time reaches a maximum; beyond that maximum, tunneling time stays the same regardless of barrier thickness. This would imply that once maximum tunneling time is reached, tunneling speed will increase without limit as barrier thickness increases. Several recent experiments have supported this hypothesis that tunneling particles sometimes reach superluminal speed. According to measurements performed by Raymond Chiao and colleagues, for example, photons can pass through an optical filter at 1.7 times the speed of light.
大多数物理学家发射particles快过光速的尝试都和一个叫做quantum tunneling的现象相关，在这个现象中，particles穿过看起来无法通过的障碍。如果你对着墙扔一个球，你会预料到它弹回来，而不是直接穿过它，然而亚原子表演类似技艺。Quantum理论说，存在一个明显的，尽管小的几率，a particle能穿过障碍墙。这个几率随着障碍的厚度增加呈指数下降。虽然这个quantum tunneling 的极端速度早在1932年就被记录下来，但是直到1955年才被W和E假设说tunneling particles有时候比光速更快。他们的这个假设的基础是一些计算，这些计算显示穿越障碍的时间随着障碍厚度的增加而增加，直到时间到达最大值，超过这个最大值，穿越时间保持不变，无论厚度如何。这就意味着一旦到达了最大穿越时间，穿越速度会随着障碍厚度增加而无限增加。几个最近的实验支持了这个假设，即tunneling particles有时候能够达到超光速的速度。根据R和他同事的测量，比如photons 能以1.7倍光速的速度穿越滤光器。


简单逻辑线：
科学家知道particles存在极速度，但后来才发现这个速度快过光速。
quantum tunneling 中一开始穿越时间T 随着厚度K增加而增加，一直到达最大值Tmax,之后时间保持不变，穿越速度V随着K增加而增加，且V可以无限大

阿尔的阳光

    Resin is a plant secretion that hardens when exposed to air; fossilized resin is called amber. Although Pliny in the first century recognized that amber was produced from "marrow discharged by trees," amber has been widely misunderstood to be a semiprecious gem and has even been described in mineralogy textbooks. Confusion also persists surrounding the term "resin,"which was defined before rigorous chemical analyses were available. Resin is often confused with gum, a substance produced in plants in response to bacterial infections, and with sap, an aqueous solution transported through certain plant tissues. Resin differs from both gum and sap in that scientists have not determined a physiological function for resin.   Resin(树脂）是一种植物分泌物，当它暴露在空气中的时候会变硬；石化的resin被称为琥珀。尽管P 在第一世纪就认为琥珀是一种“树释放的骨髓”，琥珀被广泛地误认为是一种半宝石，甚至被在矿物学中进行描述。这种错误同时也存在于"resin"这个词周围，它在各种化学分析面世之前就被明确定义了。Resin常常被和树胶混淆，树胶是一种当植物在被感染细菌时产生反应分泌出的物质，Resin也被和sap混淆，而它是一种在特定植物组织中运输的液体。Resin和gum与sap都不同，因为resin没有被科学家确定其生理学功能。
    In the 1950s, entomologists posited that resin may function to repel or attract insects. Fraenkel conjectured that plants initially produced resin in nonspecific chemical responses to insect attack and that, over time, plants evolved that produced resin with specific repellent effects. But some insect species, he noted, might overcome the repellent effects, actually becoming attracted to the resin. This might induce the insects to feed on those plants or aid them in securing a breeding site. Later researchers suggested that resin mediates the complex interdependence, or "coevolution," of plants and insects over time. Such ideas led to the development of the specialized discipline of chemical ecology, which is concerned with the role of plant chemicals in interactions with other organisms and with the evolution and ecology of plant antiherbivore chemistry (plants' chemical defenses against attack by herbivores such as insects).
在1950年代，昆虫学家假设resin可能有赶走或者吸引昆虫的功能。F推测一开始，植物因昆虫袭击而产生的resin并没有特别的化学反应， 但是过了一些时间之后，植物使得产生的resin具有一些驱赶功效。但是有一些昆虫，他提到，可能n能抵抗这种驱赶功效，实际上被resin吸引。这样会引诱昆虫以这个植物为生，或者帮助这些植物获取breeding site.后来的研究者认为resin调节了植物与昆虫之间复杂的互相依赖关系，或者说
”共同进化“关系。这样的观念推进了chemical ecology这个特殊的学科的发展，它致力于研究植物的化学物质在和其他器官结构以及plant antiherbivore chemistry的进化和生态学之间的相互作用中的角色。


结构：
提出resin并阐述它与ameber的关系----虽然很早有人认识到resin的属性，但实际上很长时间被与其他植物的分泌物混淆-
1950年代开始的假设resin的功能-----一系列相关假设导致了特殊的学科的产生