【阅读】10/03起阅读寂静整理（10/14更新，47篇原始，41篇考古）

Lightpearl-

艾倫貝爾 发表于 2018-10-6 01:18
帮朋友代构筑:
(1)有篇讲女人投票权的，说女人原本没有投票权，但其实透过女性非政治组织影响政策和法规， ...

https://forum.chasedream.com/for ... 5%E7%A5%A8%E6%9D%83

麻烦看一下女性投票权的考古是这个吗？

天信子

感谢分享！               

几许VV

**以下为二楼的testimony原文的翻译，感谢bzy!提供的原文！**

美国的法律制度长期以来一直认为所有证词都不是同等可信的，有些证人比其他证人更可靠。在有儿童证人的严峻案件中，它假定成年证人更可靠。但是，如果法律制度错了呢？

研究人员Valerie Reyna，人类发展教授，以及来自康奈尔大学的人类发展和法学院教授Chuck Brainerd认为，就像双头罗马神Janus一样，记忆有两种思想 - 即记忆被捕获并在心灵的两个不同部分分别和不同地记录。

他们说，孩子们更多地依赖于记录“实际发生的事情”的心灵的一部分，而成年人更多地依赖记录的另一部分，“发生的事情的意义”。因此，他们说，成年人更容易受到错误记忆的影响，这在法庭案件中可能非常成问题。

Reyna和Brainerd的研究由弗吉尼亚州阿灵顿国家科学基金会资助，引发了30多项后续记忆研究，其中许多也由NSF资助。研究人员在即将出版的“心理学公报”中回顾了后续研究。

这项研究表明，基于意义的记忆是造成虚假记忆的主要原因，特别是在成年证人中。因为从经验中提取意义的能力发展缓慢，所以儿童比成人更不可能产生这些错误的记忆，并且在适当的质疑时更有可能提供准确的证词。

这一发现是违反直觉的;它不符合现行的法律原则，可能对法律诉讼产生重要影响。

“因为儿童的基于意义的经验记录较少，所以他们不太可能形成错误的记忆，”雷纳说。 “但法律规定，儿童比成年人更容易受到错误记忆的影响。”

法院对成人证词的依赖历史悠久。在20世纪70年代早期之前，8岁以下的儿童很少作证，因为他们没有通过法院的能力要求。

然后在20世纪70年代，当统计数据显示虐待儿童案件数量增加时，法院被迫允许年轻受害者的证词，只是在20世纪90年代再次强调成人证词，当时一些儿童的证词被证明是不可靠的。

布雷纳德说：“法院给出证人指示说实话，只说实话。” “这假设证人要么是真实的，要么是谎言，但现在有第三种可能性被认可 - 错误的记忆。”

根据布雷纳德的说法，“事情即将彻底改变。”

模糊跟踪理论

传统的记忆理论假设一个人的记忆是基于事件重建，特别是在几天，几周或几个月的延迟之后。然而，Reyna和Brainerd的模糊跟踪理论假设人们存储两种类型的经验记录或记忆：逐字痕迹和要点痕迹。

逐字痕迹是对实际发生的事情的记忆。要点痕迹基于一个人对发生的事情的理解，或事件对他或她的意义。 Gist痕迹会刺激错误的记忆，因为它们存储了事件意义的印象，这可能与实际发生的事情不一致。

当证人准确地描述他们所记得的内容时，可以识别虚假记忆，但根据其他无懈可击的事实证明这些记忆是错误的。

“当主要痕迹特别强烈时，它们可以产生幻象回忆 - 即对未发生的事物进行虚幻，生动的回忆，例如记住强盗挥舞武器并发表威胁声明，”Reyna说。

布雷纳德辩称，由于证人证词是刑事诉讼的主要证据，虚假记忆是无辜人民定罪的主要原因。

最近，在伊利诺伊州库克县，超过200起谋杀罪被认定是基于成人的虚假记忆报告，因为他们与无懈可击的事实相冲突。例如，一个人可能错误地记得在一个地方，但是销售收据显示他在犯罪的同时在另一个地方。

在虐待儿童案件中，法律赋予成人证词怀疑的好处，结果可能更令人不安。 “未能认识到成人和儿童如何产生记忆的差异，不公平地使美国的法律制度不利于儿童证人，”Reyna说。

“在从情境中获取意义时，儿童的情感和智力体验并不像成年人那样丰富，”雷纳说。 “因此，基于意义的记忆不太可能影响孩子的证词。”

研究人员表示，他们的变革性“双心”记忆方法可以减少法庭案件中的错误记忆数量，并使儿童的证词更有效。

记忆科学
Reyna和Brainerd开发了几种与模糊跟踪理论相关的数学模型，可用于预测成人和儿童的记忆结果。

测试记忆的模型已被用于确定律师，调查员，执法官员和其他人可以提出问题的方式，以帮助人们获取逐字记忆，同时抑制错误记忆。 研究人员表示，使用中性提示来提示证人可以帮助他们记住实际发生的事情。

Reyna和Brainerd还表示，以高度中立的方式将一名目击者送回事件现场，可以提供逐字记忆并帮助法律程序。

这些模型提供了迄今为止关于错误记忆原因的最准确信息。 使用它们，研究人员可以在一个人访问逐字记录和一般记忆时以惊人的准确度来确定。

Reyna和Brainerd的研究结果总结在牛津大学出版社出版的新书“假记忆科学”中。

billyisfragile!

Profitability and market share: A reflection on the functional relationship
Joachim Schwalbach
First published: May 1991

一般认为market share和利润率positively correlated。market share更高的大公司的利润率比小公司高，empirical studies也支持此观点。实际上小公司的利润率也不差，至少不会输给大公司。利润率比较低的是那些中等大小的公司。对大公司来说，65~70%的market share 利润率最高，再高的话利润率也会下降的

Abstract
The paper analyzes the functional relationship between profitability and market share for type of businesses in the PIMS data base. Although a linear relationship has been imposed in other studies, our result shows that empirically it seems a poor representation of the data. In addition, three observations seem to be most evident. First, small‐share businesses were not per se less successful than larger business units. In the service market and the market for raw or semi‐finished materials small‐share businesses were just as profitable or even more profitable than larger business units. Second, some businesses were ‘stuck in the middle’, which was most evident in the service market but also in the retail and wholesale markets. Third, very large‐share businesses were often less profitable. A critical market share was identified as between 65 and 70 percent. Beyond that level the ROI decreased.

https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-482763-1-1.html

原来JJ中问raw material是怎么样的，JJ答案是market share小的和那些market share大的差不多，在附件4 Exp result中我们可以看到：In the market for raw or semi-finished materials are very small business units with less than 5 percent market shares about equally successful as business with about 10 pervent market share. 答案呼之欲出。

原帖链接：http://forum.chasedream.com/GMAT_Math/thread-482573-1-2.html

In the market for raw or semi-finished materials are very small business units with less than 5 percent market share about equally successful as businesses with about 10 percent market share.

GMAT770小生

问下  楼主大人  这次的库是只有阅读和1113的库重复了还是  所有的科目都重复了

billyisfragile!

https://forum.chasedream.com/forum.php?mod=redirect&goto=findpost&ptid=1329498&pid=24292073&fromuid=1333346

第一段：现在流行的几乎所有的显微镜，都有一个缺点：好像是通过镜片什么的来对焦，会有折射衍射之类的（defraction?反正就是测量珠峰那篇里面的那个词）。某个科学家，很早之前提出了一个方法来观察测量精密的atom之类的，但是一直无法实现，因为not until recently，才发现了能够达到那么高精度变化的物质（也就是说你可以让他只膨胀或者缩小1微微米那种，这样材料做出来的显微镜精度高）（这句话好像有题）

第一段说到了, 某种光的波长不在人类可以看到的波长之中, 所以某科学家提出了一个理论跟仪器, 但是在那时候无法制作出该仪器第二段说到了, 现在科技的进步导致该仪器已经产生.

Objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light are a  staple of contemporary science and technology. Biologists study  single molecules of protein or DNA;  materials scientists examine atomicscale flaws in crystals; microelectronics engineers lay out circuit patterns  only a few tens of atoms thick. Until recently this minute world could  be seen only by cumbersome, often  destructive methods such as electron  microscopy and X-ray diffraction. It lay  beyond the reach of any instrument as  simple and direct as the familiar light  microscope.

A family of new microscopes opens  this realm to direct observation. The  devices can map atomic and molecular shapes, electrical, magnetic and  mechanical properties and even temperature variations at a higher resolution than ever before, without the  need to modify the specimen or expose it to damaging, high-energy radiation. The achievement seems implausible. More than 100 years ago, after  all, the German physicist and lensmaker Ernst Abbe described a fundamental limitation of any microscope  that relies on lenses to focus light or  other radiation: diffraction obscures  details smaller than about one half the  wavelength of the radiation.

第一段：光学显微镜有人说不给力，因为有折射什么会影响，然后1956年（大概是这时候）有人提出了一种理论可以解决这个问题，但还没办法通过这个理论制作新的显微镜，因为缺少能够精确定位的仪器还是技术来着（失忆了。。。但这里有题，看到文章很容易locate）

The new microscopes-typified by  the scanning tunneling microscope, for which Gerd Binnig and Heinrich  Rohrer of the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel prize in 1986-overcome this Abbe barrier with ease. The principle by which they  do so was first described in 1956. In that year]. A. O'Keefe, then of the U. S. Army Mapping Service, proposed a microscope in which light would  shine through a tiny hole in an opaque  screen, illuminating an object directly  in front of the screen. Light transmitted through the specimen or reflected  back through the hole would be recorded as the sample was scanned  back and forth. O'Keefe pointed out  that the resolution of such a "scanning near-field microscope" would be  limited only by the size of the hole and  not by the wavelength of the light. In  principle the device could make superresolving images-images showing  details smaller than half a wavelength.

O'Keefe acknowledged that technology capable of positioning and  moving an object with the needed precision did not exist. By resorting to  long-wavelength radiation, however,  Eric Ash of University College, London,  adopted the O'Keefe strategy in 1972  to circumvent the Abbe barrier. He  passed microwave radiation at a wavelength of three centimeters through a  pinhole-size aperture and scanned an  object in front of it to record an image  with a resolution of 150 microns-one  
two-hundredth of a wavelength.

By that time, means of controlling  sample position and movement with  the precision needed to surpass the  resolution of a conventional light microscope were becoming available. In  the same year as Ash's demonstration,  Russell D. Young of the National Bureau of Standards succeeded in manipulating objects in three dimensions with a precision of about a nanometer (a billionth of a meter). He relied  on piezoelectrics-ceramic materials that change size ever so slightly when  an electrical potential across the material is changed. Piezoelectric controls  opened the way to the development,  in 1981, of the supreme example of  a scanning near-field microscope, the  scanning tunneling microscope, or  STM [see "The Scanning Tunneling Microscope," by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer; SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, August, 1985).

第二段：说这个新型显微镜“XXX tunnelling microscope”的工作原理，这个显微镜就是通过control（大概就是支架）来控制一个probe，由于这种材料能够精密控制大小，这样能够让那个probe尽可能的贴近标本的表面，但是不接触。这样足够近的情况下，两边如果有电压，就会产生一个"tunnel"，实际就是两者的gap中产生电流了。（有题问tunnel是什么，就是the nature of currents between probe and specimen）这个电流的强度，是由probe和标本中物质粒子的距离决定的，probe会在整个标本上移动，当他经过一堆atom上时，电流就强，当他经过atom之间的相对空白的地方（想象两颗石子中间的空当），电流就弱，所以根据电流大小就可以知道这个标本的表面的形状。

In the STM the "aperture" is a tiny tungsten probe, its tip ground so  fine that it may consist of only a single atom and measure just .2 nanometer in width. Piezoelectric controls  maneuver the tip to within a nanometer or two of the surface of a conducting specimen-so close that the electron clouds of the atom at the probe  tip and of the nearest atom of the  specimen overlap. When a small voltage is applied to the tip, electrons  "tunnel" across the gap, generating  a minuscule tunneling current. The  strength of the current is exquisitely  sensitive to the width of the gap; typically it decreases by a factor of 10 each  time the gap is widened by .1 nanometer-half the diameter of an atom.

P2：解释这种技术，这种scanner是根据这种原理一**造的（这里有step的题）。这种技术是用的currency电流，然后控制扫描的东西在一个steady的height上，然后过程中不断地front and back，这些不用记，找关键词就好

X and y piezoelectric controls (which govern motion in the two dimensions of a plane) move the probe back and forth across the specimen  surface in a raster pattern, its parallel tracks separated by perhaps a fraction of a nanometer. If the probe maintained a steady height, the tunneling current would fluctuate dramatically, increasing as the tip passed over bumps such as surface atoms and falling to nothing as it crossed gaps  between atoms. Instead the probe moves up and down in concert with  the topography. A feedback mechanism senses the variations in tunneling current and varies the voltage applied to a third, Z, control. The Z piezoelectric moves the probe vertically to stabilize the current and maintain a constant gap between the microscope's tip and the surface.

The variations in the voltage applied to the zpiezoelectric are electronically translated into an image of surface relief. If the sharpness of the probe, the precision of the controls and the fineness of the raster scan are all sufficient, STM images can reveal individual atoms, as small as .2 nanometer in diameter. The images are superresolving: the quantum-mechanical wavelength of the tunneling electrons in the probe―the "radiation" that gives rise to the image―is approximately one nanometer.

艾倫貝爾

Lightpearl- 发表于 2018-10-6 21:28
https://forum.chasedream.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=597754&highlight=%E6%8A%95%E7%A5%A8%E6%9 ...

是!

Veraaaaa

感谢分享！               

billyisfragile!

http://go.galegroup.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA19294301

Title: Comparing intensity and effectiveness of marketing communications: services versus non-services
Author(s): J. Duncan Herrington, James G. Lollar, Michael J. Cotter, and James A. Henley, Jr. .
Source: Journal of Advertising Research.

Much of the literature regarding the advertising of services implies that services are more difficult to communicate than non-services. Assuming that this is true, is it reasonable to expect that services communications will be comparatively less effective at generating sales? To address this question, this study compares the intensity and effectiveness of total marketing communications among service and non-service firms serving consumer and industrial customers. Additional comparisons were made using advertising alone. The results suggest that, contrary to expectations, services communications appear to be no less effective at generating sales than non-services communications. In fact, the impact of marketing communications is higher for consumer service firms than for consumer non-service firms - at least in the short run. In light of these findings, several general implications for both researchers and services marketers are discussed.

Marketing communications （MC）
S1原来认为service公司难做marketing,因为都是无形产品，所以service公司花在MC上的钱比nonservice少。作者提出质疑
S2 MC中一个重点是看长期还是短期。 A设计实验在customer market 和industry market比较。Customer market中service回报>non service； 但是在industry market中回报差不多; 长期也差不多（本段出了道题目:可以推断出A的试验方法如何，我选了consistent with之前的研究）S3失忆了 没出题

P1 因为 service 是 intangible 的，所以比 product 难做 marketing。所以 service firm 花在 MC 的钱比 nonservicefirm 花的少。作者提出疑问：这个 assumpion 正确吗?

Because services are intangible, they can be more difficult to communicate and display than physical goods (Rathmell, 1974) Firms marketing physical goods (non-services) can readily display product features and attributes. Service organizations by comparison are limited to the communication of intangible features and/or the physical evidence associated with the purchase or use of a service.

That services are intangible and thus perhaps more difficult to communicate suggests two broad questions for service marketers. First, does the characteristic of intangibility imply that marketing communications (MC) will be any less effective for service firms? In other words, will the return on marketing communications expenditures be lower for service firms than for non-service firms? Second, if MC are less effective for services compared to non- services, should services marketers be spending relatively more, less, or the same amount on MC as non- service firms?

Research shows that in practice, MC expenditures among service firms are relatively lower than MC expenditures by non-service firms. This practice makes sense if the financial returns on MC investment are indeed lower for services. On the other hand, it can also be argued that if returns are relatively lower service marketers need to spend more to generate equivalent sales and profit volume. At this time there exists no compelling evidence to support either position.

The purpose of this exploratory study is to provide services marketers with information that can be used to help make decisions regarding MC expenditures. This is accomplished by assessing MC intensity and effectiveness across several hundred service and non-service firms serving both consumer and organizational markets. In an effort to address short- and long-term budgeting concerns, both the current impact and the duration (carryover) of MC on sales are examined.

【本月原始】wunderkindye
4.向客户介绍产品（MC）
以往研究表明service公司相比non-service公司在MC上花费较少资源，以往对此的解释是service的产品特征难以描述，因此公司不关注。
新的研究发现service公司其实比non-service公司在MC上得到的回报更好（这里要注意研究分为2B和2C的service和non-service公司，一共四种情况，在2B时service比较好，2C时差不多，有一道题时关于这里的细节的）。研究者结合之前的研究解释为service公司不是不关注MC，而是做MC的效率较高，因此花费较少资源。

H1a: MCI will be lower among consumer service firms than among consumer non-service firms.

H1b: MCI will be lower among industrial service firms than among industrial non-service firms.

H2a: The magnitude of the current impact of marketing communications on sales will be lower for consumer service firms than for consumer non-service firms.

H2b: The magnitude of the current impact of marketing communications on sales will be lower for industrial service firms than for industrial non-service firms.



DISCUSSION AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS

p1 讲了人们认为 service industry 的 MC 不如 nonservice industry 有效，因为一个原因（assumption 此处高亮有题）第一段最后一句是个问句，说这个 assumption 一定是对的么？

In general, this study reports three attempts, all unsuccessful, to find evidence in support of the assumption that intangibility or some other unique characteristic makes services communications less effective than non-services communications. Another finding was the reaffirmation that consumer service firms spend less on MC than consumer non-service firms. In light of this information several important questions arise. For instance, why are service firms spending less on MC than non-service firms? Why is it that despite lower expenditures services MC seems to be no less effective, or in the case of consumer services more effective, at generating sales?

Additionally, why are there differences in MC effectiveness among firms serving consumer and organizational markets? Finally, in light of these findings should service firms spend less or more on MC? The following section offers some tentative answers to these questions.

One explanation would be that consumer service firms expect lower returns on their MC expenditures. Perhaps some service firms are heeding the current rhetoric in the literature regarding the difficulty of communicating services and interpreting it to mean that MC will be less effective. As a consequence they are spending less on MC.

In setting MC budgets, there are factors other than expected returns to consider, some of which may weigh more heavily on the decision than return on advertising. Perhaps service firms are in general more limited in terms of availability of operating funds and are thus unable to spend on MC at the same level as non-service firms. For instance, many service firms (eg, retailers) operate on razor-thin margins and/or operate in intensely price- competitive arenas (eg, airlines).

It is interesting to note that while consumer service and non-service firms differ in terms of MCI, there are no significant differences in Al. This would seem to suggest that differences in MCI may be attributable to one or more of the other elements of the MC mix (eg, personal selling, sales promotion, public relations activities).

One of the surprise findings of the study is that the current impact of MC on sales is higher for consumer service firms than for consumer non-service firms. Undeniably, intangibility can make communication more difficult. So how can service firms spend less on MC and still get higher returns? Several possible explanations come to mind.

First, perhaps intangibility is not such a limiting factor, or current practices aimed at adding tangibility to services communications are working. However, without complete information on the nature of the marketing communications used for each of these firms during the test period, this conclusion remains speculative.

Alternately, perhaps service firms are making more efficient use of their limited MC budgets or the MC expenditure levels for many service firms are well below the point of marginal diminishing returns. If this is the case, the rate of change in sales given an incremental increase in MC would be predictably higher for service firms than for non-service firms spending closer to the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.

Another explanation would be that MC may cost less for many service firms. Many service producers serve only limited geographic markets. This dictates emphasis on local rather than national MC. In some instances, the cost of local communications (eg, advertising, telemarketing) is lower than national communications. For example, many media have both local and national rates with the latter of the two frequently being higher. Consequently, some service firms may be able to accomplish more while spending less.

While the current effects of MC on sales among consumer services is greater than that of consumer non- services, the same does not hold true for the industrial services to non-services comparison. Though adding credence to the idea that services and non-services MC are not different in terms of effectiveness, this finding may create some confusion as well. Namely, why is there a difference among consumer firms but not among industrial firms?

Two possible explanations are offered. First, it is widely held that the typical MC mix among consumer firms can be substantially different from that of industrial firms in terms of the relative weights and contributions of the various elements of the MC mix. For instance, many industrial firms tend to rely more heavily on personal selling than advertising. Perhaps such differences can help explain why the comparisons yield different results.

Second, a comparison of the average current impact of MC for all four types of firms shows that the average current impact of MC is much lower for consumer non-services than for the three remaining groups. Therefore, the differences in the comparisons across consumer and industrial firms may be attributable solely to some unique characteristic of consumer non-service firms not identified in this study. This point is merely speculative but deserves further attention.

From the secondary analysis, the finding that the current effects of advertising on sales among consumer services is not different from that of non-services adds further support for the notion that services communications are not less effective. This would suggest that if true differences in MC effectiveness do actually exist, they may be attributable to some other element of the MC mix.

Alternately, this finding may be due to a unique artifact of the limited set of firms examined. For instance, the 52 service and non-service firms for which the data for the secondary analysis were obtained are among the top 100 advertisers in the United States. As such, one would expect firms spending at such levels to be operating somewhere close to the point of diminishing marginal returns. Perhaps significant differences are not readily apparent for firms advertising at such high levels regardless of the tangibility of the product.
In addition, many of the firms represented in the data set operate in rather intensely competitive industries (eg, beer, airline, bank cards, long-distance telephone services). As a result, such firms may be forced to spend beyond peak efficiency just to keep up with competition. Lack of significant differences may also be attributable to the small size of the data set (39 non-service firms and 13 service firms). A larger, more diverse set of data need be examined before any conclusions can be reached on this particular issue.
Another general finding of this study was that the carryover of MC effects is not different among service or non- service firms regardless of the market served. The same results were obtained for both total MC as well as advertising alone. This adds even further credence to the notion that services MC are not any less effective in the short- or long-term.

But why would MC have a greater impact on sales in the short run for consumer services but not in the long run? Perhaps the real problem with intangibility occurs over the long run rather than the short run. For instance, perhaps intangibility makes long-term storage and recall of service attributes more difficult. Or, perhaps intangibility hinders evaluations of service quality more so than product quality.

Another possible explanation for the observed contrast in effects lies in potential differences in purchase cycles. Perhaps some types of consumer non-services are purchased more or less often than some types of services. As a result, the observed difference in the duration of MC between service and non-service firms may be attributable to the length of time between purchases. Additional data would be required to fully explicate the nature of these situational effects.

Should services marketers be spending relatively less on communications than their non-services counterparts? Overall, the results from this study suggest two implications for promotional budgeting. First, decision makers in service firms should not necessarily spend less on MC than their non-service counterparts. By spending less, service firms could experience a decrease in both short- and long-term sales. To the contrary, due to the potential for higher relative effectiveness, some consumer service firms may wish to increase expenditures, at least to the point of diminishing marginal returns.

Second, if differences in short or long-term effectiveness do exist, they are likely to be attributable to elements of the MC mix other than advertising. Consequently, managers should carefully monitor and assess the MC mix to identify communication components having the most impact on current sales results and budget accordingly. Based on the results of this study advertising remains a valid component of the promotional mix.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Given these exploratory results, additional research on this topic may offer pragmatic insights. This study is representative of a 'natural' experimental design. As a result, complete closure was not obtained for many extraneous variables. Future research would benefit by using 'true' experimental designs to eliminate many possible sources of extraneous influence.

In addition, future research in this area would benefit from a direct analysis of the impact of varying intensities and types of MC activities on product sales. For example, by analyzing the impact of frequency as well as the content of specific advertisements for each firm, the effectiveness of specific communications strategies can be examined and compared. This should result in less speculative conclusions. Given that purchase cycles of non- services as a whole may differ from services, future research should consider purchase cycles as well.

Research examining the differences among the various types of services and the various levels of tangibility for different types of services may also prove enlightening. Specific characteristics of the service offering could be investigated to identify possible 'characteristic clusters' that evince tangibility. To the extent that these generalizations are possible, service marketers would then have a better understanding of focal images and cues to use in their MC.

Also, future research should further investigate the impact of total marketing communications as well as each individual component of the communications mix (ie, sales promotion, advertising, personal selling efforts, publicity). Finally, there is a need to obtain a better understanding and explanation for the differences between consumer and industrial marketing communication effectiveness as it relates to both services and non-services.

尽人事听天命

补牙那篇827的库里有～