【每日阅读训练第四期——速度越障6系列】【6-16】科技

CHRISTINE2010

Sorry,今天把时差搞错了。。。。然后这么晚才发帖子，对不起大家~~

【计时一】

Chimpanzees Create 'Social Traditions': Unique Handclasp Grooming Behavior Reveals Local Difference

ScienceDaily (Aug. 28, 2012) — Researchers have revealed that chimpanzees are not only capable of learning from one another, but also use this social information to form and maintain local traditions.
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A research collaboration between the Gonzaga University and the Max Planck Institute shows that the way in which chimpanzees groom each other depends on the community to which they belong. Specifically, it is the unique handclasp grooming behaviour that reveals this local difference.
The specific behaviour that the researchers focused on was the 'grooming handclasp', a behaviour where two chimpanzees clasp onto each other's arms, raise those arms up in the air, and groom each other with their free arm. This behaviour has only been observed in some chimpanzee populations. The question remained whether chimpanzees are instinctively inclined to engage in grooming handclasp behaviour, or whether they learn this behaviour from each other and pass it on to subsequent generations.
Edwin van Leeuwen and Katherine Cronin of the Comparative Cognitive Anthropology research group of the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics led by Daniel Haun conducted their observations between 2007 and 2012 at the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage Trust in Zambia. At Chimfunshi, a mix of wild- and captive-born chimpanzees live in woodlands in some of the largest enclosures in the world. The Max Planck team collaborated with students from Gonzaga University led by Mark Bodamer, a team of local chimpanzee caretakers, and Roger Mundry of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in order to collect and comprehend the detailed chimpanzee data.
Previous research suggested that the grooming handclasp might be a cultural phenomenon, just like humans across cultures engage in different ways of greeting each other. However, these suggestions were primarily based on observations that some chimpanzee communities handclasp and others don't -- not whether there are differences between communities that engage in handclasping. Moreover, the early observations could have been explained by differences in genetic and/or ecological factors between the chimpanzee communities, which precluded the interpretation that the chimpanzees were exhibiting 'cultural' differences.
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【计时二】

The present research shows that even between chimpanzee communities that engage in the grooming handclasp, subtle yet stable differences exist in the styles that they prefer: one chimpanzee group highly preferred the style where they would grasp each other's hands during the grooming, while another group engaged much more in a style where they would fold their wrists around each other's wrists.
"We don't know what mechanisms account for these differences," van Leeuwen says. "But our study at least reveals that these chimpanzee communities formed and maintained their own local grooming traditions over the last 5 years. Our observations may also indicate that chimpanzees can overcome their innate predispositions, potentially allowing them to manipulate their environment based on social constructs rather than on mere instincts."
Apart from the different style preferences of the chimpanzee communities, the research team also observed that the grooming handclasp behaviour was a long-lasting part of the chimpanzees' behavioural repertoire: the behaviour was even transmitted to the next generation of potential handclaspers.
"By following the chimpanzees over time, we were able to show that 20 young chimpanzees gradually developed the handclasp behaviour over the course of the five-year study. The first handclasps by young individuals were mostly in partnership with their mothers. These observations support the conclusion that these chimpanzees socially learn their local tradition, and that this might be evidence of social culture," Bodamer explains.
"Continued monitoring of these groups of chimpanzees will shed light on the question of how these group-traditions are maintained over time and potentially even why the chimpanzees like to raise their arms up in the air during social grooming in the first place," van Leeuwen adds.
【276】



【计时三】

NASA's Kepler Discovers Multiple Planets Orbiting a Pair of Stars

ScienceDaily (Aug. 28, 2012) — Coming less than a year after the announcement of the first circumbinary planet, Kepler-16b, NASA's Kepler mission has discovered multiple transiting planets orbiting two suns for the first time. This system, known as a circumbinary planetary system, is 4,900 light-years from Earth in the constellation Cygnus.
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This discovery proves that more than one planet can form and persist in the stressful realm of a binary star and demonstrates the diversity of planetary systems in our galaxy.
Astronomers detected two planets in the Kepler-47 system, a pair of orbiting stars that eclipse each other every 7.5 days from our vantage point on Earth. One star is similar to the sun in size, but only 84 percent as bright. The second star is diminutive, measuring only one-third the size of the sun and less than 1 percent as bright.
"In contrast to a single planet orbiting a single star, the planet in a circumbinary system must transit a 'moving target.' As a consequence, time intervals between the transits and their durations can vary substantially, sometimes short, other times long," said Jerome Orosz, associate professor of astronomy at San Diego State University and lead author of the paper. "The intervals were the telltale sign these planets are in circumbinary orbits."
The inner planet, Kepler-47b, orbits the pair of stars in less than 50 days. While it cannot be directly viewed, it is thought to be a sweltering world, where the destruction of methane in its super-heated atmosphere might lead to a thick haze that could blanket the planet. At three times the radius of Earth, Kepler-47b is the smallest known transiting circumbinary planet.
The outer planet, Kepler-47c, orbits its host pair every 303 days, placing it in the so-called "habitable zone," the region in a planetary system where liquid water might exist on the surface of a planet. While not a world hospitable for life, Kepler-47c is thought to be a gaseous giant slightly larger than Neptune, where an atmosphere of thick bright water-vapor clouds might exist.
【348】



【计时四】

"Unlike our sun, many stars are part of multiple-star systems where two or more stars orbit one another. The question always has been -- do they have planets and planetary systems? This Kepler discovery proves that they do," said William Borucki, Kepler mission principal investigator at NASA's Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, Calif. "In our search for habitable planets, we have found more opportunities for life to exist."
To search for transiting planets, the research team used data from the Kepler space telescope, which measures dips in the brightness of more than 150,000 stars. Additional ground-based spectroscopic observations using telescopes at the McDonald Observatory at the University of Texas at Austin helped characterize the stellar properties. The findings are published in the journal Science.
"The presence of a full-fledged circumbinary planetary system orbiting Kepler-47 is an amazing discovery," said Greg Laughlin, professor of Astrophysics and Planetary Science at the University of California in Santa Cruz. "These planets are very difficult to form using the currently accepted paradigm, and I believe that theorists, myself included, will be going back to the drawing board to try to improve our understanding of how planets are assembled in dusty circumbinary disks."
Ames manages Kepler's ground system development, mission operations and science data analysis. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., managed the Kepler mission development.
Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder, Colo., developed the Kepler flight system and supports mission operations with the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado in Boulder.
The Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore archives, hosts and distributes Kepler science data. Kepler is NASA's tenth Discovery Mission and funded by NASA's Science Mission Directorate at the agency's headquarters in Washington.
【287】



【计时五】

Small Family Size Increases Wealth of Descendants but Reduces Evolutionary Success

ScienceDaily (Aug. 28, 2012) — Scientists have taken a step closer to solving one of life's mysteries -- why family size generally falls as societies become richer.
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Evolutionary biologists have long puzzled over this because natural selection is expected to have selected for organisms that try to maximise their reproduction. But in industrialised societies around the world, increasing wealth coincides with people deliberately limiting their family size -- the so-called 'demographic transition'.
In a study published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, researchers from the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Centre for Health Equity Studies (Stockholm University/Karolinska Institutet) and UCL (University College London) reject a popular theory put forward to explain the phenomenon. This 'adaptive' hypothesis proposes that low fertility may boost evolutionary success in the long term by increasing offspring wealth, which in turn eventually increases the number of long-term descendants because richer offspring end up having more children.
The researchers found that having a small number of children increased the economic success and social position of descendants across up to four generations, but reduced the total number of long-term descendants. They conclude that the decision to limit family size can be understood as a strategic choice to improve the socioeconomic success of children and grandchildren in modern societies, but this socioeconomic benefit does not necessarily translate into an evolutionary benefit.
The study indicates a conflict in modern societies between behaviours promoting social and economic benefits versus biological success. This contrasts with traditional populations in the developing world, where behaviours that promote wealth and social status usually lead individuals to leave behind more genetic descendants.
【282】



【剩余】

The researchers tested these hypotheses using data from the Uppsala Multigenerational Birth Cohort Study, which tracks 14,000 people born in Sweden in the early 1900s and all their descendants to the present day.
They measured the socioeconomic success of each generation by looking at their school marks, at whether they went to university and at their household income across adulthood. Reproductive success was assessed by survival to adulthood, marriage before age 40 (a proxy for 'mating success') and fertility (number of offspring up to 2009).
Among both male and female children in the original cohort, smaller family size and higher parental socioeconomic position were both associated with substantially higher school marks, university entrance and income. These effects were particularly large when low fertility and high socioeconomic status coincided, with the benefits of small family size being particularly marked in wealthier groups. Moreover, these advantages were in turn passed on to the grandchild and great-grandchild generations.
But contrary to the adaptive hypothesis, small family size and high parental wealth either did not affect reproductive success beyond the first generation of offspring or if anything showed a negative effect in subsequent generations.
Lead author Dr Anna Goodman, Research Fellow at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, said: "Under natural selection, you would expect organisms to use their resources to produce more genetic descendants, and so increase their Darwinian fitness. The demographic transition is a puzzle because at first sight it doesn't look like people are doing this. One adaptive explanation for the puzzle is that there exists a quantity-quality trade-off, such that having more children leads to those children being less able to reproduce in turn -- i.e. higher 'quantity' leads to lower biological 'quality'. However our study found this quantity-quality trade off only applied to descendants' socioeconomic success, not their reproductive success."
Co-author Dr David Lawson, from the Department of Anthropology at UCL, said: "One of our most interesting findings is that being from an initially wealthy household makes the benefits of small family size even bigger. Poorer households in contrast have relatively little to gain by limiting fertility, perhaps because the success of their children is more determined by broader societal factors, rather than investment and inheritance from parents, which is in short supply. This observation suggests a certain economic rationality to fertility patterns in the modern world, since fertility rates often drop first and most substantially in the wealthier sections of society when populations undergo demographic transition."
Professor Ilona Koupil, from the Centre for Health Equity Studies (Stockholm University/Karolinska Institutet) said: "It is important to note the equity implications of these findings. First, this research indicates that differences in family size may have lasting consequences on social inequalities. Second, this research provides evidence for the fact that people's educational levels and wealth not only affect schoolmarks and income in their children but also in their grandchildren and great-grandchildren. From a broader social policy perspective, our findings show that even in a country like Sweden with relatively low levels of inequality, we need policies that seek to equalise children's opportunities across families."
【514】



【越障】

Male Snails Babysit for Other Dads: Family Secrets of Marine Whelk Solenosteira Macrospira

ScienceDaily (Aug. 28, 2012) — Pity the male of the marine whelk, Solenosteira macrospira. He does all the work of raising the young, from egg-laying to hatching -- even though few of the baby snails are his own.

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The surprising new finding by researchers at the University of California, Davis, puts S. macrospira in a small club of reproductive outliers characterized by male-only child care. Throw in extensive promiscuity and sibling cannibalism, and the species has one of the most extreme life histories in the animal kingdom.
The family secrets of the snail, which lives in tidal mudflats off Baja California, are reported online in a study in the journal Ecology Letters.
In the study, UC Davis researchers report that, on average, only one in four of the hundreds of eggs that a male S. macrospira carries around on his back belong to him. Some carry the offspring of as many as 25 other males.
Such extreme cases provide the raw material on which natural selection can work and shed light on more "mainstream" species, said study author Rick Grosberg, a professor of evolution and ecology at UC Davis.
"It opens our eyes to viewing other kinds of behavior not as weird or harmful but as normal," he said.
The snails were first described in an amateur shell-collectors newsletter, The Festivus, in 1973. Grosberg started studying the animals in 1994, when he brought some back from a collecting trip and realized that only male snails had egg capsules on their shells.
When the snails mate, the female glues capsules containing hundreds of eggs each to the male's shell.
The male's shell likely acts as a substitute rock, since the snails' habitat offers few surfaces on which to glue eggs, said co-author Stephanie Kamel, a postdoctoral researcher in Grosberg's lab.
Moving in and out with the tide on dad's (or stepdad's) back also protects the egg capsules from the extremes of heat and drying they might face if left on a stationary rock.
A male's shell may become covered in dozens of capsules, each containing up to 250 eggs. As the eggs hatch, a process that takes about a month, some of the baby snails devour the rest of their littermates. Typically only a handful of hatchlings survives the fratricide to emerge from a capsule and crawl away.
Kamel carried out DNA analysis of brood capsules to determine the eggs' parentage. On average, she found that the male snails had sired just 24 percent of the offspring on their backs. Many had sired far less.
"The promiscuity in the female snails is extraordinary," Kamel said, noting that some females mate with as many as a dozen different males.
Why do they do it? Typically in the animal kingdom, females invest more resources in an egg than a male does in a sperm, so mothers have a stronger interest in providing parental care. Males may mate with multiple partners to increase their chances of siring offspring, but typically make less investment in caring for those young. When dads do get involved, it's nearly always because they are assured that all or most of the offspring are their own. Male sea horses, for example, carry developing young in a pouch -- but all are their own genetic offspring.
One explanation could be that caring for the kids just doesn't cost the male snails much. But by tethering individual snails to a post sunk in the sand, Grosberg was able to follow them over time and show that the capsules do impose a significant burden, reflected in weight loss.
It may be that carrying the egg capsules simply represents the best of limited options for the males, Grosberg said, since it's impossible for them to mate without the female attaching an egg capsule to their backs.
Or carrying egg capsules may be a way for a male to show a female that he's good parent material.
"If he wants to get any action, he has to pay the price," Grosberg said.
Grosberg is fascinated by the conflicts that occur between parents, between siblings, and between parents and offspring as they each try to get resources and maximize their success in breeding. You can see these conflicts and rivalries all the way from simple animals to humans, he notes.
"Everything that intrigues me about family life happens in these snails," he said.
At the same time, no animal has gone as far as humans in evolving increasing cooperation between relatives, tribes and larger and larger (and less closely related) groups over time.
"We're good at seeing other forms of reward," Grosberg said.
The work was funded by the National Science Foundation.
【788】

miffyhui

谢lz！文章很有趣

1’44”the chimpanzees show a cultural difference amongdifferent community.
1’35” Chimpanzees learn their local tradition. This is theevidence of social cultural.
2’00”走神~
1’20”
1’39”the economic benefits conflicts with biologicalsuccess. Decreasing the number of offspring is a strategy to improve the successof descendent children.
4’19”the mate snail is back has 25% of the offspring. Some babysnails eat other littermates.
Scientists found that only 25% of eggs belong to the shellcarrying them.
The female alwaysinvest much into their offspring.
Why the mate has egg capsule in their shell?
Perhaps they want to show that they are good parent material.

铁板神猴

囧 这样就是在和我的帖子抢生意了 哈哈

anyway, Christine, thanks for the great work!

Fighting小虾米

1‘43
1’31
1‘20
1’25
1‘45

越障：
6’27
M is male-only child care and carries only 1/4 of hundreds of eggs belongs to him.
In animal kindom, females always invest mor in caring young and males mate with multiple partners to increase their chances of siring offspring. Males care about their offspring only when they are assured that all are their own. But M is so different.
No animal has gone as far as humans in evolving in relatives, tribes and groups.

kathy0911

今日文章很有趣，感谢Christin！

Speed
2:37
1:44
2:45   （遇到天文就害怕... 读超慢...）
2:01
2:04


Obstacle    5:421. New findings about the marine whelk, S M. The male whelk is the only one caking care of the baby.
2. However, only 25% of the hundred eggs that the male carries belongs to him.
3. The female snail will glue capsules of eggs on the male's shell, using it as a rock.
4. Baby snails hatched on the shell will eat the rest of their littermates.  
5. Researchers are puzzled by the fact that female snails will mate with as many male as they can but do nothing to take care of their offspring. In the animal kingdom this behavior is abnormal.      
6. And why the male snails are willing to take care of the baby when in fact few of the baby are their own.

flyoceanwu

THANK YOU
1.2:20
2.1:40
3 2:40
4.1:25
这两天状态很不好.早上的CRITICAL REASONING做得不是很好.是不是该休息一天了?

风随心动01

Speed
[Time 1]  0:02:18
The researchers discovered chimpanzees in specific populations greeted each other with a certain behavior, so they wanted to know the reason they behave like this.

[Time 2]  0:02:00
第一遍：Different chimpanzee groups have different grooming behavior. But one group have maintained their grooming behavior for a long time.
第二遍：Different chimpanzee groups have different grooming behavior. The chimpanzees in a group learn their grooming behavior, which is the evidence of society culture.

[Time 3]  0:03:07（慢的伤心）
The NASA astronounts found two plants in a system. The way two stars act and their surroundings are just like the sun and the earth in galaxy.

[Time 4]  0:02:20
The researchers are now researching whether the inner plant has its own …(单词没记住，大概就是星系之类的吧)。The intrusment ,which the researchers are using now, is Kepler and the sponsors of the discovery are…(公司名字).

[Time 5]  0:01:45
A survey, presented on a newspaper, explained why the economy rose up limited the number of children the family had. The reason was that big family size ended up the wealth the family had.

Obstacle
[Time 6]  5:14
1. A biologist found that most of the eggs a male snail carry are not his babies.
2. The male carry eggs, so that the babies have a good protection from the dad.
3. However, the expirement shows only 24% of the babies, which a dad carries, are belong to the dad.
4. There are several reasons to explain the interesting thing.
5. The female snail mates with more than one male to enhance the rate of successful lay eggs.
6. The male snail carries baby to show to the female that he is a good male snail.
只记得这六点呀~
总结：Speed速度还是很慢，怎么觉得练到现在都没有效果呢。越障感觉比之前好很多，虽然不能记住全部框架和内容，但已经能回忆起大部分了，不过还是需要练习~

蓝天will

[Speed]
2'08
1'38
2'26
1'48
2'23

[Obstacle]
7:46
three fourth of the capsulate on male snail's shell is not that male's offspring

刷两遍还是没能抓出框架记忆...明天开始Speed区也要练闪存才行

chengzaaaa

2’49
Chimpanzees handclasp, and scientists are trying to figure out whether this is a instinct behavior or a learned behavior that pass through generation. They observed in a chimpanzee orphanage.
2’01
There are differences between different chimp communities in the way they handclasp. Evidence showed that they do that for more than 5 years. This is a social behavior.
3’16
Kepler found a circumbinary system. The intervals in this system is different from that of the way a single star orbit around a single planet.
2’28
This discovery proved a question they have always been wondering.
2’13
Biologists are studying the problem why family size become smaller as the society get richer.
4’14

6’09
Surprising finding: male snails carry a lot of capsules on their back, of which only 24% are their babies.
The way snails mate: the female glues capsules containing eggs in males’ shell.
The males protect the shell. And when only a handful babies survive to come out, scientists analyzed their DNA and find out only 24% are the male’s baby, or far less.
Female invest more in an egg than male do in a sperm. Female mate with a lot of different males.
Males have to pay price to make sure that they have eggs sired to them.
Caring the capsules does not cost much. But it costs a little, showed in the loss of weight in males.
Carrying egg capsules is a way for male to show that he is parental material.



谢谢lz！！！

我心匪席

2’03
Researchers found that chimpanzees show some handclasp grooming behaviors to each other in different communities. And whether those special behaviors come from instinct or just learning from others is still unknown.

2’05
After a series of observations among different chimpanzees communities, their handclasp grooming behaviors are more likely a social culture, learning from their community members.

2’07
More planets can form in the realm of a binary star.
Observations of Kepler-47 system, which is a circumbinary system, shows that time intervals are the “moving target”.

2’08
Kepler-47 system is a full-fledged circumbinary planetary system, and may has opportunities for life to exit.

1’52
Traditional theory states that riches may have more offspring, however, modern studies proposes that a small number of children increased economic success and position but had fewer descendants in the long term.

4’23
Data from Sweden coincide with this modern study, quantity-quality trade-off.
Those with high social position and great fortune may have small family bigger, but in their grandchildren or grand-grand children the family size will be small.

5’44
UC Davis has found that male S carries both its own eggs and other male’s eggs on its back.
Male’s shell can be a good place for hatching eggs.
Female S has more male mates, increasing its parental care, while male S mates as many as female to increase its offspring.
Human is different from these simple animals。

越读越慢，越慢越不知所云，

感谢lz，不算太迟~