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2.2.4 早期人类活动 V1 by angellmason 一个科考话题,确定一类早期的人或动物的活动啥的,然后用了一个新的方法,可以通过测定好像是牙齿呀什么的东西来确定他们的活动。(文章太长了,记不住) V2 by paulinezhu 一个是研究一种什么动物的化石来确定hominid.一个科考话题,确定一类早期的人灵长类动物的活动,是一下子在山洞里呆很长时间不出去还是每次很短,但是会呆很多次,然后用了一个新的方法,是研究一种早期人的食用的某种试草动物的牙齿化石,可以通过测定好像是牙齿上面的残留的植物的化石的来确定他们的活动。文章有6段,很长。最后文章结论说两种洞居的情况都有。我记得有一个加强题,问什么finding会支持说残留物可以让科学家得出结论,我选了当时那些植物一直都有,有可能不对,我的逻辑是有植物才能确定时间,这个标准每年不。选项还有说人当时不仅捕捉被研究的这种生物,还捉别的生物,还说人也吃那些植物。另外有一个highlight的题目,带一个meal字,问的是作者最同意选项里面那句。我选了最后一项,说通过检查化石,科学家知道动物死以前吃的是什么。 V3 by Poodle1223 有人猿jaw 和 rough food , 这个有题问according to the article, .....established 什么, 选项居然有jj里面的人猿可以同时接触到rough /unrough food.但是我觉得不是这个,推导顺序反 V4 by Cannybs 第2篇,蛮长的,好像有5段,讲一些研究者要研究一下一个什麽种族的人(hominid)在某地居住的情况和时间,然后方法是就去研究一些食草动物(u打头的一个专有名词)的化石,但文章有解释意思就是食草动物,还查看他们的牙齿上teeth/dental的wear(应该是磨损的意思),研究发现这些wear在吃东西的时候产生,但是之后的会erase previous ones(此处有考题). 后面几段好像说发现这些wear里有difference还是invariance,而且还有seasonal的特点,由此可以确定它们吃的食物的类别,不记得了,最后一段:由此可以说明什麽在hunting 少的时候,好像是说这些人住得短,如果hunting多的季节,就相反,这里可能有点出入,大家仔细看,等后人补充。 V5 by catking2005 还是做得很差……好长好长 V3里那个人猿可以同时接触到rough /unrough food.那个选项的意思是古人类可以把食物加工成怎样的或怎样的,这个题目好像是要削弱文章结论 V2里另外有一个highlight的题目,带一个meal字,问的是作者最同意选项里面那句。我选了最后一项,说通过检查化石,科学家知道动物死以前吃的是什么。那句高亮的句子大意是说“多亏了最后的晚餐”,就是说动物死之前吃的神马东西可以对研究作出项献。这题我同意原狗主人的观点。尽管我因为把meal看成了meat,而选项里又讲了plant,所以选了另外一个答案…… V6 by sherrycc 个highlight的题目,带一个meal字,问的是作者最同意选项里面那句。我选了最后一项,说通过检查化石,科学家知道动物死以前吃的是什么。 其他想起来再补充吧~~~额。。。。不记得了 V7 by DexJ 说明:关于hominid的文章应该有两篇,一篇应当是关于hominid活动与食草动物化石研究的;另一篇是我今天碰到的,主要讲通过古今化石对比研究生物特性,hominid仅是一个例子。 P1 aleontologists 通过对比生物化石与今天生物特征,来推断古代生物的习性。比如,发现TyrannosaurusRex(暴龙)有fang(毒牙),就推断它是一种predator。However, new research indicates that 即便化石显示出了一种特性,这种生物也不一定did so. P2: 科学家惊讶地发现古人类有着强力的jaw和chewing muscles, 却仅仅吃general diet。(Scientist would be astonished to findthat hominid that has tough jaw and chewing muscles only on general diet. ) P3: 在M地区的Hominid中里既有强力teeth and jaw, 也有稍弱的。这样,在年景不好的时候,那些比较强的就过得更好些,从而得以pass their genes. Q1: 主旨题。 Q2: 根据科学家的发现可以infer什么?hominid中存在both types(强的和不强的) Q3: 以下哪个与P2中说的情况相似。 A...(忘了,但好排除) B…(忘了,但好排除) C.一种动物的tail既能驱赶insects又能balance its body D.一种动物在黑暗中视力很好,但only active in day time(我选这个) E…(有迷惑性,选择时请留意) V8 by lifanscut 第二篇传说中的hominid 这篇实在是巨长,我见过有史以来最长的文章,六段还是五段,反正两屏,但是有JJ,心里有底喽~ 研究一种什么动物的化石来确定hominid.,确定一类早期的人灵长类动物的活动,是一下子在山洞里呆很长时间不出去还是每次很短,但是会呆很多次,然后用了一个新的方法,是研究一种早期人的食用的某种试草动物的牙齿化石,可以通过测定好像是牙齿上面的残留的植物的化石的来确定他们的活动。文章有6段,很长。最后文章结论说两种洞居的情况都有。结论是两种都有,通篇的结构是这样的:先讲hominid的活动有两种(如上所述),再说现在科学家们发现的研究方法可以确定这个问题(具体介绍怎么用植物神马的,神马动物和一种物质来确定,其中有个单词ungulate可以查查,对理解文章有帮助),最后讲述了这个方法的意义,结尾是研究结果——根据发现,两种行为都是存在的。 题目有削弱题,问什么finding会削弱说残留物可以让科学家得出结论,我选的是人不仅吃食草动物还吃食肉动物,觉得是有道理的,正是因为人类食物不单一,所以单一方面的研究不能有力证实结论的发现。 另外有一个highlight的题目,带一个meal字,问的是作者最同意选项里面那句。我选了最后一项,说通过检查化石,科学家知道动物死以前吃的是什么。那句高亮的句子大意是说“多亏了最后的晚餐”,就是说动物死之前吃的神马东西可以对研究作出项献。这题我同意原狗主人的观点。 之后我在网上找到了原文的摘要,因为是外文网,所以数据库进不去,这里附上摘要: Abstract Characterization of settlement patterns is one of the core concepts in archeological research. The duration of an occupation is usually estimated through zooarchaeology (e.g., density of remains, cementochronology) and is limited by taphonomic processes and sample size. We propose a new application of dental wear methods for estimating the relative duration of hominid settlements in Paleolithic sites. Dental microwear is known to be sensitive to seasonal changes in diet. In this new application we use microwear scratch counts to estimate the variation in the dietary signal of various ungulate species. We propose that this variation is correlated to the duration of site occupation. Each season presents a limited and different set of food resources available in the environment. If animals are sampled only during a specific season (i.e., during a short term occupation) then they would be expected to have a dental wear signal with little variation. On the other hand, a greater diversity of food is available across different seasons. Therefore, if game animals are hunted through various seasons during long occupation periods, then they would be expected to have more variable dental wear. The application of this technique to the Middle Paleolithic site of Arago Cave (France), where various types of occupations occurred, supports this hypothesis. When combined with multidisciplinary studies of archaeological localities (seasonality in particular), this new application of dental wear analysis presents valuable information about hominid settlements and behavior. We contextualize our data with results from lithic and zooarchaeological analyses from Arago. These results reveal the presence of both high and low mobility groups of Homo heidelbergensis throughout the sequence of the Arago Cave. 摘要的原文很有很有很有很有可能是文章,因为摘要的内容和文章吻合到爆,更重要的是用词和句法完美吻合,看完这个hominid就不用愁了,单词也没有不认识的了~~~ 考古 by nowwsy 古代动物的牙齿第一段:考古通常根据化石跟现在骨头的类似处总结以前的动物干些什么。第二段:这个不一定准blah blah。第三段:最近发现一种猿人牙齿化石锋利,但其实他不爱吃硬东西,有硬牙齿是因为以防万一环境不好,只有硬东西吃。 V2 第一段:古代有种动物的牙齿化石teeth and jaw表明它们只要能够找得到充沛的食物就不会吃那些硬的难以咀嚼的食物(有题)。 第二段忘了。 第二段:现代的同类动物的teeth 的jaw表明了类似的情况? 最后一句话有说古代的那种动物会把teeth and jaw strong的特点 pass to their genes。 V3 (V35) 科研人员往往把古代生物的特征和现代生物对比,去确定古代生物的习性。比如某远古人类的颌骨和灵长类很像,于是就推断他是草食。但科学家证明了他是杂事动物。这种研究方法存在漏洞。第二段又举了某种动物,也具有和灵长类相似的颌骨,但事实上他们并不吃草类。而是在饥荒的时候,草类很难消化,这种颌骨发达的个体才能生存下来,保留基因。有问整篇的主旨是什么。还有问哪一项可以帮助证明第二段的结论。选的是”目前没有小颌骨的这种动物被发现“, 这样说明确实小颌骨基因被淘汰了 有问整篇的主旨是什么。还有问哪一项可以帮助证明第二段的结论。还有一道削弱题和一道细节题目 V4 P1提出一个理论说什么许多现在看起来应该是这样的,但在以前并不一定。。。(我也看得很晕) P2讲一个原始人类种拥有尖利的牙齿,以吃一些像生肉之类难以咀嚼的东西。 P3讲然而,又有一个原人类种并没有或少有这种牙齿,因为他们日常生活中不需要咀嚼难吃的东西,只会在比较困难的时候才会用到。所以,尖利的牙齿没有遗传下来。 V5 讲通过动物牙齿的化石特点以及现在具有这种特点的生物的习性,推断以前这种生物的习性,之前的JJ里有,短文章,三段(有一道削弱题,还有一道Infer的) V6 第一段是举了一个例子,说考古学家通常根据化石现在的样子推测之前动物的样子。然后举了一个例子大概是恐龙化石吧,不确定记不住了。有一题是问这个例子的作用的。 第二段:否定第一段的理论说明这个结论不一定准,然后举了个例子大概就是一个挖掘出来的什么东西的牙齿之类的结构跟今天的不一样。基本是这样,不想误导大家。 第三段:进一步阐述第二段的例子。最近发现一种猿人牙齿化石锋利,但其实他不爱吃硬东西,有硬牙齿是因为以防万一环境不好,只有硬东西吃。最后一句话好像是在气候环境之类的因素变恶劣的时候这些有坚固牙齿(类似是)的动物能生存下来。好像考过一个细节题。 V7 一屏多,我都静不下心来做。。。但是MS考古上有类似的。。就是讲古代人和动物的teeth chew things 和现在的不一样。。做了很多实验什么的。。(这篇4道题有3道是逻辑, 而且题全是围绕最后一个结论说的,但是选项是要到前几段去找的!!做的我泪奔。。。。) V8 其他的问题JJ都有了,另外一个就是问能推出什么,答这种动物在进化的时候经历过both有容易吃的and只有tough food可以吃的时期 V9 (V40) 讲的是远古时代一些动物牙齿的坚固程度与它们所掠的食物的关系。即,有一种theory认为,那个牙齿坚固的说明它们喜欢吃那些tough 的东西。但另一种theory认为,一般动物只有在环境恶劣,没有其他食物吃的时候,才去选择那些比较tough的东西。 注:作者确认: 与G12的确是文章不一样,不过主题是一样的,思路也差不多 V10 1.问说哪一个可以strengthen第二段的结论 答案和JJ上给的一样 就是现在没有发现第二段里所说的P动物的牙齿 2.主旨题 我选undermine the assumption about the commonly use evidence,大概就是这样(不知道大家看懂了没 意思就是 因为大家都认为牙齿硬的动物都是吃硬的食物 但是结果发现并不是 )这在一段有提到,后面都在举例说明。。我才应该是这个答案吧。。不确定哦 3. 问P动物的例子说明了什么 我选只要有软的食物 他们都不会去嚼硬的~~~ 因为文章是说P动物有硬得牙齿 可是研究发现他们的牙齿很少洞?那个词(没看懂 但大概就那意思。。)因为他们都吃软的食物~~ OLD JJ Version 1 1段:对一个化石骨骼研究有困难。1981的新发现帮助学者们reconstruction此脊椎生物,意义重大。 2段:对此生物的一个观点:这个骨骼的发展是为defensive purpose, 认定此脊椎生物是无脊椎动物prey。段末否定这个观点。 3段:继续阐述这个否定,认为这个生物一开始就是predator,所以此骨骼的目的是agressive. Version 2 还有一个无脊椎动物的,1981年的新发现推翻了以前认为某种动物不是食肉动物的观点。我觉得阅读的关键就是要回到原文找到作者是怎么说的,再注意HOWEVER, WHILE等词就能判断正确 Version 3 还有一道是讲无脊椎动物(还是有脊椎?这个单词我分不清)的,这篇东西真TMD难,又长又拗口,无数个HOWEVER,WHILE,(建议各位如果有时间看看张红岩TOEFL词汇后面的分类汇总,里面有很多词汇比如无脊椎,有脊椎,食肉动物,被捕猎者,化石等等单词都有用到,我没时间……),我看得那个叫晕啊。动物的名字也很妖我记得有点向COCONUT????反正你只要记住它叫COCO就可以了,文章里面只有这么一个COCO,另外一个动物我忘记叫什么名字了,也不是什么好货色,长度因该在8个单词以上。如果能看懂文章题目因该不难,看不懂就猜吧,文章比较长定位很困难,难死了… V4 这篇阅读前面JJ都没出现,而且我估计我就死在这篇阅读上,很长,一屏半,讲1981年发现个什么东西的化石,然后这个化石帮助解决了个什么问题 说原来认为这个东东是先有防御性的甲壳,然后长出什么Jaws和牙齿。 是被捕食者。 而另一派说,这个东西是先长出攻击性牙齿的,原来是捕食者。 然后拿个什么东西做比较,说了很多,没看懂。 最后一段说这个化石证明这个东西是捕食者。 题目考细节,第2段仔细看。 V5 一个化石骨骼的意义(长)。 1段:对一个化石骨骼研究有困难。1981的新发现帮助学者们reconstruction此脊椎生物,意义重大。 2段:对此生物的一个观点:这个骨骼的发展是为defensive purpose, 认定此脊椎生物是无脊椎动物prey。段末否定这个观点。 3段:继续阐述这个否定,认为这个生物一开始就是predator,所以此骨骼的目的是aggressive. V6 还有一个是讲一个new evidence对vertebrate地说明起到了很大的作用,解决了之前的一些纷争,第二段就说traditional view和另一派的纷争 说是traditional 的觉得vertebrate的发展是因为defend作用,而另一派则认为不是;最后一段说新evidence的发现证明的是passive是不对的,还提到了……最后一段出了一些题目 V7 還有一題考最近發現一種新的軟的什麼生物之類的,然後去研究他的jaw & teeth,然後有兩種論調好像講脊椎動物應該事先演化那部分的樣子,這題我真的看不懂,但是文章很長,其中有一段全部被mark成黃色的當題目來問 (这段是第三段,介绍新观点的,即认为这个生物一开始就是predator,所以此骨骼的目的是aggressive.) 参考资料(原文?)待确认 by stellang Tiny marks on the teeth of an ancient human ancestor known as the "Nutcracker Man" may upset current evolutionary understanding of early hominid diet. Using high-powered microscopes, researchers looked at rough geometric shapes on the teeth of several Nutcracker Man specimens and determined that their structure alone was not enough to predict diet. Peter Ungar, professor of anthropology at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville, contends the finding shows evolutionary adaptation for eating may have been based on scarcity rather than on an animal's regular diet. "These findings totally run counter to what people have been saying for the last half a century," says Ungar. "We have to sit back and re-evaluate what we once thought." Ungar and his colleagues, Frederick E. Grine of State University of New York at Stony Brook and Mark F. Teaford of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., reported their findings last week in the Public Library of Science One, a peer-reviewed, international, online journal. The research was funded in part by the National Science Foundation. The researchers examined the teeth of Paranthropus boisei, an ancient hominin that lived between 2.3 and 1.2 million years ago and is known popularly as the "Nutcracker Man" because it has the biggest, flattest cheek teeth and the thickest enamel of any known human ancestor. "Ungar and colleagues' work on Paranthropus boisei diet is extremely important," says Joanna Lambert, physical anthropology program director at NSF. "Understanding what and how early hominins ate sheds light not only onto the feeding biology of our fossil ancestors, but also onto the very evolution of our own species." Scientists long have believed that P. boisei fed on nuts and seeds or roots and tubers found in the savannas throughout eastern Africa because the teeth, cranium and mandible appear to be built for chewing and crunching hard objects. But Ungar points out that the teeth only suggest "what P. boisei could eat, but not necessarily what it did eat." Anthropologists have traditionally inferred the diet of ancient human ancestors by looking at the size and shape of the teeth and jaws. However, by using powerful microscopes to look at the patterns of wear on a tooth, scientists can get direct evidence of what the species actually ate. Since food interacts with teeth, it leaves behind telltale signs that can be measured. Hard foods like nuts and seeds, for instance, lead to more complex tooth profiles, while tough foods like leaves lead to more parallel scratches. Researchers compared dental microwear profiles of P. boisei to modern-day primates that eat different types of foods. P. boisei teeth were compared to those of the Old World Monkey species grey-cheeked mangabeys, and the New World Monkey species brown capuchin monkeys-both of these species consume mostly soft items but fall back on hard nuts or palm fronds. Old World monkeys are found today in South and East Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Gibraltar at the southern tip of Spain. New World monkeys are found in tropical forest environments in southern Mexico, Central and South America. P. boisei dental profiles also were compared to the New World mantled howling monkey and Old World silvered leaf monkey, which eat mostly leaves. Researchers also compared them to some of P. boisei's more contemporary counterparts-Australopithecus africanus, which lived between 3.3 million and 2.3 million years ago, and Paranthropus robustus, which lived between 2 million and 1.5 million years ago. The findings showed that P. boisei teeth had light wear, suggesting that none of the individuals ate extremely hard or tough foods in the days leading up to death. The pattern was more consistent with modern-day fruit-eating animals than with most modern-day primates. "It looks more like they were eating Jell-O," Ungar said. This finding, while contradictory to previous speculation on the diet of P. boisei, is in line with a paradox documented in fish. Liem's Paradox states that animals may actively avoid eating the very foods they have developed adaptations for when they can find other food sources. It appears the paradox may hold true for P. boisei and for some modern-day primates as well. "If you give a gorilla a choice of eating fruit or a leaf, it will take the fruit every time," Ungar says. "But if you look at a gorilla's skull, its sharp teeth are adapted to consuming tough leaves. They don't eat the leaves unless they have to." Accordingly, the finding represents a fundamental shift in the way researchers look at the diets of early human ancestors. "For many years, the perspective has been that the very large teeth and thick dental enamel of P. boisei were adaptations to consuming very hard food types year-round," says Lambert. "Such specialization has historically been viewed as a potential cause for this fossil species' extinction. The research team demonstrated that such generalizations require careful re-thinking, and that P. boisei was a more flexible feeder than has classically been viewed." "This challenges the fundamental assumptions of why such specializations occur in nature," Ungar says. "It shows that animals can develop an extreme degree of specialization without the specialized object becoming a preferred resource." |
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