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GWD-8-Q7-Q10 The system of patent-granting, which confers temporary monopolies for the exploitation of new technologies, was originally established as an incentive to the pursuit of risky new ideas. Yet studies of the most patent-conscious business of all—the semiconductor industry—suggest that firms do not necessarily become more innovative as they increase their patenting activity. Ziedonis and Hall, for example, found that investment in research and development (a reasonable proxy for innovation) did not substantially increase between 1982 and 1992, the industry’s most feverish period of patenting. Instead, semiconductor firms simply squeezed more patents out of existing research and development expenditures. Moreover, Ziedonis and Hall found that as patenting activity at semiconductor firms increased in the 1980’s, the consensus among industry employees was that the average quality of their firms’ patents declined. Though patent quality is a difficult notion to measure, the number of times a patent is cited in the technical literature is a reasonable yardstick, and citations per semiconductor patent did decline during the 1980’s. This decline in quality may be related to changes in the way semiconductor firms managed their patenting process: rather than patenting to win exclusive rights to a valuable new technology, patents were filed more for strategic purposes, to be used as bargaining chips to ward off infringement suites or as a means to block competitors’ products. 这一段，首先是提出专利权的一些东西，后来说这些东西对于半导体公司不实用。然后以一个年代段为例说明这个问题。
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GWD-8-Q7 :
The passage is primarily concerned with discussing A. a study suggesting that the semiconductor industry’s approach to patenting during the period from 1982 to 1992 yielded unanticipated results B. a study of the semiconductor industry during the period from 1982 to 1992 that advocates certain changes in the industry’s management of the patenting process C. the connection between patenting and innovation in the semiconductor industry during the period from 1982 to 1992 D. reasons that investment in research and development in the semiconductor industry did not increase significantly during the period from 1982 to 1992 E. certain factors that made the period from 1982 to 1992 a time of intense patenting activity in the semiconductor industry
问题分析：文章的主旨。感觉是专利权有没有起作用的一个争论。当然做题只觉得1982-1992只是一个例子，没想到所有选项这个时间都是论述的主要点。
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The passage suggests which of the following about patenting in the semiconductor industry during the period from 1982 to 1992 ? A. The declining number of citations per semiconductor patent in the technical literature undermines the notion that patenting activity increased during this period. B. A decline in patent quality forced firms to change the way they managed the patenting process. C. Increased efficiencies allowed firms to derive more patents from existing research and development expenditures. D. Firms’ emphasis on filing patents for strategic purposes may have contributed to a decline in patent quality. E. Firms’ attempts to derive more patents from existing research and development expenditures may have contributed to a decline in infringement suites. -------------------------------------------------------------------- GWD-8-Q9 :
The passage makes which of the following claims about patent quality in the semiconductor industry?
A. It was higher in the early 1980’s than it was a decade later. B. It is largely independent of the number of patents granted. C. It changed between 1982 and 1992 in ways that were linked to changes in research and development expenditures. D. It is not adequately discussed in the industry’s technical literature. E. It was measured by inappropriate means during the period from 1982 to 1992. ----------------------------------------------------------------- GWD-8-Q10: Which of the following, if true, would most clearly serve to weaken the author’s claim about what constitutes a reasonable yardstick for measuring patent quality?
A. It is more difficult to have an article accepted for publication in the technical literature of the semiconductor industry than it is in the technical literature of most other industries B. Many of the highest-quality semiconductor patents are cited numerous times in the technical literature C. It is difficult for someone not familiar with the technical literature to recognize what constitutes an innovative semiconductor patent D. There were more citations made per semiconductor patent in the technical literature in the 1970’s than in the 1980’s E. Low-quality patents tend to be discussed in the technical literature as frequently as high-quality patents. 问题分析：关键词是yardstick，这相当于CR里的削弱，与measuring有关，文章中说于measuring时有的测量方法是独特的，用数量计算的，
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GWD-8-Q25-Q28 Jon Clark’s study of the effect of the modernization of a telephone exchange on exchange maintenance work and workers is a solid contribution to a debate that encompasses two lively issues in the history and socialogy of technology: technological determinism and social constructivism. Clark makes the point that the characteristics of a technology have a decisive influence on job skills and work organization. Put more strongly, technology can be a primary determinant of social and managerial organization. Clark believes this possibility has been obscured by the recent sociological fashion, exemplified by Braverman’s analysis, that emphasizes the way machinery reflects social choices. For Braverman, the shape of a technological system is subordinate to the manager’s desire to wrest control of the labor process from the workers. Technological change is construed as the outcome of negotiations among interested parties who seek to incorporate their own interests into the design and configuration of the machinery. This position represents the new mainstream called social constructivism. The constructivists gain acceptance by misrepresenting technological determinism: technological determinists are supposed to believe, for example, that machinery imposes appropriate forms of order on society. The alternative to constructivism, in other words, is to view technology as existing outside society, capable of directly influencing skills and work organization. Clark refutes the extremes of the constructivists by both theoretical and empirical arguments. Theoretically he defines “technology” in terms of relationships between social and technical variables. Attempts to reduce the meaning of technology to cold, hard metal are bound to fail, for machinery is just scrap unless it is organized functionally and supported by appropriate systems of operation and maintenance. At the empirical level Clark shows how a change at the telephone exchange from maintenance-intensive electromechanical switches to semi-electronic switching systems altered work tasks, skills, training opportunities, administration, and organization of workers. Some changes Clark attriutes to the particular way management and labor unions negotiated the introduction of the technology, whereas others are seen as arising from the capabilities and nature of the technology itself. Thus Clark helps answer the question: “When is social choice decisive and when are the concrete characteristics of technology more important?”
文章分析：开篇指出clark的研究对于技术决定论和社会构造论的影响的决定有重要意义，并且clark是通过电话这一科技影响来说明他的观点的。第一段然后说明了科技决定论的一些东西。这里科技论受到的挑战主要来自于B这个人。
第二段，承第一段篇末留下的对比，说明社会论是对科技论错误理解后的产物。Clark在理论和实证两个方面说明了社会论与科技论的区别联系。
理解方面不到位的地方是：没理解clark对于社会论与科技论的主要态度和立场。
借鉴网上给出逻辑简图：
JC’s study is a solid contribution to debate two issues: technological determinism and social constructivism. C decisive evidence… C believes obscured; exemplified….. C refutes the extreme… Thus, C helps answer…. --------------------------------------------------------------------
GWD-8-Q25 :
The primary purpose of the passage is to A. advocate a more positive attitude toward technological change B. discuss the implications for employees of the modernization of a telephone exchange C. consider a successful challenge to the constructivist view of technological change D. challenge the position of advocates of technological determinism E. suggest that the social causes of technological change should be studied in real situations 问题分析：文章的主旨。应该就是C对科技与社会的理解分析。由此可以排掉BDE，第二段C用理论和实证来challenge社会论。而A选中more positive并没有相关比较。
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The information in the passage suggests that Clark believes that which of the following would be true if social constructivism had not gained widespread acceptance? A. Businesses would be more likely to modernize without considering the social consequences of their actions. B. There would be greater understanding of the role played by technology in producing social change. C. Businesses would be less likely to understand the attitudes of employees affected by modernization. D. Modernization would have occurred at a slower rate. E. Technology would have played a greater part in determining the role of business in society. 问题分析：would be是一个虚拟时，就是在文章并没有原文论述题中的情况。关键词是acceptance和social constructivism。第一段最后和第二段开始有说到。C认为社会论的接受是一个错误，所以答案应该是一个积极的反应。所以排CD。
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The author of the passage uses the expression “are supposed to” in lines 34-35 primarily in order to A. suggest that a contention made by constructivists regarding determinists is Inaccurate B. define the generally accepted position of determinists regarding the implementation of technology C. engage in speculation about the motivations of determinists D. lend support to a comment critical of the position of determinists E. contrast the historical position of determinists with their position regarding the exchange modernization 问题分析：are supposed to 是一个带有虚拟语气的短语，这里是说作用，那么应该与前句有关，看它对前句产生什么影响：这里的作用其实是更正。
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Which of the following statements about the modernization of the telephone exchange is supported by information in the passage?
A. The new technology reduced the role of managers in labor negotiations. B. The modernization was implemented without the consent of the employees directly affected by it. C. The modernization had an impact that went significantly beyond maintenance routines. D. Some of the maintenance workers felt victimized by the new technology. E. The modernization gave credence to the view of advocates of social constructivism.
GWD-8-Q35-Q37 This passage was adapted from an article written in 1990.
Research data indicate that there is a great deal of poverty in the United States among single-parent families headed by women. This problem could result from the fact that women’s wages are only 60 percent of men’s. Some economists believe that rigorous enforcement of existing equal pay laws would substantially decrease this wage inequity. But equal pay laws are ineffectual when women and men are concentrated in different occupations because such laws require only that women and men doing the same jobs be paid the same. Since gender concentration exists (for example, 80 percent of clerical workers are women), other economists argue that a comparable worth standard, which would mandate that women and men in any jobs that require comparable training and responsibility be paid the same, should be applied instead. But some policy analysts assert that, although comparable worth would virtually equalize male and female wages, many single-parent families headed by women would remain in poverty because many men earn wages that are below the poverty line. These policy analysts believe that the problem is not caused primarily by wage inequity but rather by low wages coupled with single parent hood, regardless of sex. As a solution, they challenge the government’s assumption that a family’s income should depend primarily on wages and urge the government to provide generous wage supplements (child and housing allowances) to single-parents whose wages are low.
文章分析：根据研究数据对单亲妇女的收入进行讨论。从经济学家认为是性别差异导致的收入差异，到最后得出只要是单亲家庭生活都挺苦的，与性别无关。
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GWD-8-Q35 :
The passage suggests that the United States government’s policy towards providing wage supplements to parents whose wages are low is A. considered ill advised by most economists who have studied the issue B. based on assumptions about the appropriate sources of family income C. under revision in response to criticism from some policy analysts D. capable of eliminating wage inequality but not of raising incomes for both women and men E. applicable to single-parent families headed by women but not to single-parent families headed by men 问题分析：文章的建议。应该是在文章最后才提出了最终的建议。只根据单亲与否不根据性别。所以应该选B -------------------------------------------------------------------- GWD-8-Q36:
Which of the following is most clearly an example of the policy advocated by the policy analysts mentioned in line 26 ? A. A government provides training to women who wish to move out of occupations in which women are concentrated. B. A government supports research that analyzes the connection between wage inequality and poverty among single-parent families headed by women. C. A government surveys wages annually to make certain that women and men in the same jobs receive the same pay. D. A government analyzes jobs in terms of the education and responsibility they require and publishes a list of jobs that should be considered equivalent for wage purposes. E. A government provides large rent subsidies to single parents whose wages are less than half the average worker’s wage. 问题分析：L26里的政策分析所支持的。这时应该先看L26，这里就是说平等收入了也解决不了问题。那么这里有性别工资平等的选项要先被排除即ABC，另外D中还是一个工资平等问题所以也错。
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According to the passage, some economists believe that, in the United States, there would be smaller differences between the wages of women and men who do the same jobs if A. equal pay laws were enforced more fully B. more stringent equal pay laws were passed C. a more rigorous comparable worth standard
were developed and applied D. more men entered the occupations in which women are concentrated E. women received the same kind and amount of job training that men receive ？？？问题分析：在什么情况下男女工资就会平等，这个应该是前段的内容，一个可比的标准，保证教育训练相同的职位男女工次一样，要实施。这题的问题在于，some economists是文中所提到的哪些人？
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发表于 2009-6-1 00:59:00
