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[资料] TOEFL机考百宝箱

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发表于 2003-3-7 20:00:00 | 显示全部楼层

TOEFL机考百宝箱

一、考试基本情况

Frequently Asked Questions About
The Computer-Based TOEFL® Test

Test Format
What is the test like?

The test includes four sections, plus computer tutorials and a break. It takes between three and one-half and four hours to complete everything.


Section        Time Limit           No. of Questions
Tutorials      no time limit   
Listening     40-60 minutes               30-50
Structure   15-20 minutes               20-25
Break 5 minutes   
Reading       70-90 minutes              44-55
Writing        30 minutes                 1 topic


What is tested in each section?

Listening: measures ability to comprehend spoken North American English.
Structure: measures ability to recognize language appropriate for standard written English.
Reading: measures ability to read and understand short passages
Writing: measures ability to write in English. You are given 30 minutes to compose one required essay on an assigned topic.


Are all the questions multiple choice?

Most of the questions are multiple choice. However, there are several new types of questions, such as ones that require selecting a visual or part of a visual, answering questions with more than one response, ordering items, and matching objects or text to categories.


Scores
What is the score scale for the computer-based test?

Listening                            0-30
Structure/Writing                 0-30
Reading                             0-30
Total                                0-300
Essay (on a separate scale)       0-6






[此贴子已经被作者于2003-3-7 20:00:39编辑过]
 楼主| 发表于 2003-3-7 20:05:00 | 显示全部楼层
12月以前TWEJJ题目列表----让你心中有数
作者:萧秋水

10月,11月考过的题号列表如下:(根据185题号)

97,101,102,107,109,110,115,116,118,119,120,122,125,128,
129,130,135,137,139,143,147,148,154,155,156,158,160,161,
163,164,165,166,167,171,173,175,179,182,185,1,2,7,8,10,
11,13,18,23,25,26,33,35

10月以前考过的题号列表如下:
96,97,99,101,102,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,
116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,128,129,130,133,
134,135,137,138,139,142,143,145,146,147,148,149,151,154,
155,156,158,160,161,163,164,165,166,167,168,170,171,173,
175,176,179,181,182,183,184,185,1,2,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,
14,15,18,20,23,24,25,26,29,33,34,35




[此贴子已经被作者于2003-3-7 20:06:13编辑过]
 楼主| 发表于 2003-3-7 20:07:00 | 显示全部楼层
PP答案----让你知根知底
PP答案。
reading: test1
1.B 2.C 3.D 4.A 5.D 6.D 7.A 8.C 9.C 10.B 11.A 12.C 13.C 14.C

15.D 16.D 17.B 18.A 19.A 20.B 21.B 22.D 23.B 24.B 25.C 26.A

27.C 28.B 29.C 30.B 31.D 32.A 33.A 34.C 35.A 36.C 37.B 38.C

39.A 40.B 41.D 42.B 43.D 44.A 45.D 46.C 47.C 48.A 49.A 50.B 51.D

52.D 53.B 54.A 55.C 56.D 57.C 58.B 59.C 60.A 61.D 62.B 63.C 64.D

65.A 66.A 67.B 68.A 69.C 70.D 71.A 72.B 73.B 74.D 75.C 76.B 77.A

78.D 79.B 80.D 81.C 82.C 83.D 84.A 85.B 86.A 87.A 88.C 89.C 90.B

91.A 92.C 93.A 94.C 95.D 96.B 97.C 98.D 99.B 100.A 101.A 102.C

103.C 104.C 105.A 106.D 107.C 108.B 109.A 110.D 111.A 112.C 113.C

114.B 115.D 116.A 117.B 118.B 119.A 120.D 122.C 123.A 124.D 125.B

126.B 127.A 128.C 129.D 130.A 131.C 132.D 133.B 134.D 135.A 136.B

137.B 138.C 139.D 140.C 141.A 142.B 143.C 144C 145C 146D 147A 148A

151,D 152,D 153,A 154,B 155,B 157,B 159,D 160,A 161,C 163,C 164,A

166,C 167,D 172 A 173 B 174 B 176 A 177D 178C 179D 180B 181C 182D

183A 184D 185B 186C 187A 188B 189A 190C 191B 192A 193A 194A 195D 196D

197A 198D 199B 200B 201D 202C 203B 204A 205A 206D 207C 208 D 209B

210B 211C 212C 213D 214C 215C 216A 217D 218C 219B 220D 221.C 222.A

223.B 224.B 225.A 226.D 227.B 228.A 229.C 230.C 231.C 232.A 233.B

234.B 235.C 236.A 237. 238.C 239.C 240.B 241.B 242.第二个黑方块

243.A 244.B 245.D 246.B 247.A 248.A 249.B 250.A 251.C 252.D 253.C

254D 255B 256B 257C 258D 259D 260A 261D 262B 263A 264D 265B

266C 267D 268B 269D 270A 271A 272D 273B 274D 275D

reading: test2
1D 2B 3C 4D 5D 6C 7D 8A 9 the third 10A 11C(A)
12A 13A 14B 15A 16A 17B 18B 19C 20D 21C 22D
23D 24B 25 26 --can''t open them 27A 28A 29A 31B 32C 33D
34C 35B 36D 37B 38B 39A 40A 41D 42C 43C 44D
45C 46C 47C 48A 49D 50A 51D 52C 53A 54D 55B
56C 57C 58B 59A 60A 61D 63B 65C 66D 67D 69C
70D 72D 73C 74A 75C 76A 77 the last second
78C 79D 80A 82B 83A 84A 85C 88D 89D 90C 92C
94A 95D 96A 98C (中间一些打不开)
100B 101B 102B 103D 104C 105D 106A 107C 108D
109C 110D 111A 112C 113D 114D 115A 116B 117B
118A 119B 120D 121C 122C 123C 124A 128A 129D
130D 133C 134B 135A 136D 137A 138B139C 140A
141D 142D 144D 145D 146B 147B 148A 149D 150B
151C 152C 153C 154C 155A 156A 157D 158B 159D
160A 161B 162C 163C 164B 165D
160A 161B 162C 163C 164B 165D 166D 168D 169C
170C 171A 172B 173B 174the last one 177C 178B
179B 180A 181D 182C 183A 184D 185D 186A 187C
188C 189C 191A 192D 193B 197B 199D 200B 201C
203C 204A 205D 206B 207D 208C 209A 210B 211D
212C 213B 214A 215C 216D 217A 218D 219A 220A
221B 222A 223C 224D 225B 226D 227A 228C 229B
230A 231D 232D 233D 234B 235D 236A 237A 238C
239A 240C 241D 242C 243A 244D 245A 246B 247C
248D 249A 250C 251D 252D 253B 254D 255C 256B
257D 258B 259C 260C 261D 262A 263B 264D 265A
266B 267A 268B 269C 270A 271C 272d 273B 274C
275D


Listening: test 1
short conversation:
1~10 ADDCC BBCBC
11~20 DDDAA ACCBC
21~30 CCCAA CCBAC
31~40 DDCCB AADCD
41~50 BBCDB AAADA
51~53 BCD
演講題答案
long conversarion:
54 BACBD
59 CAB
62 CABD
66 ABCCD
71 BAD
74 BCD
77 CAD
80 CBCDA
85 DCAD
89 ACDB
93 DBDA
97 BADCB
102 DBBA
106 CBDBA
111 BCBAD
116 CD(AD)BC
PS:118是複選(AD)
121 BABC
talking:
125 CBDAD
130 CBADC
135 BABD
139 ADDCB
144 CBBAD
149 CCBD
153 DDCA
157 BADB
161 BBCAC
166 AABCD
171 DDACB
176 ACDBB
181 BACAD
186 ACBAD
191 CAA連CB
194 1. ...
2. A larva covers itself with silk
3. Adult structures are developed
4. A butterfly emerges from its cocoon
5. A butterfly pumps blood into its wings

197 CADCB
202 ADCA
206 BDACC

Listening: test2

1~10 CDAAA CDDBA
11~20 DCADA ABCCB
21~30 ACCBA BABCA
31~40 AABBB AAADA
41~50 BADBD ABAAA
51 C

長篇對話
52 BCC
55 ABBCA
60 BCABD
65 DA
67 CBA
70 ACB
73 ACABD
78 ABC
81 DAD
長篇對話到83題為止
84 BCA(AD)D 生物學
89 BDCBB 美學歷史
94 BA(BD)CB 生理學
99 BDAC 社會學
103 CBDAC 關於考試的對話
108 ACBDD 關於爵士音樂的對話
113 ABCA

talk:
117 DABAC 美學歷史
122 CDABB 髮夾歷史
127 ACDCB 經濟學-錢幣沿用
132 CBBDA 生物學
137 DBCCA 生物學-鳥
142 ACDCB 海洋生物學
147 C(BD)(CD)ABD 鳥類演化學
153 BBC(CD)AD 氣象學
159 DBAA 人類學
163 BDACD 生物學
168 ADCBA 地質學
173 BCDA 歷史學
177 DCABC 動物行為學
182 ACBB(BE)D 健康科學
188 CDADB 美學歷史
193 BBACD 美學歷史之某女生平簡介
198 ACDB 保存圖畫演講
202 CBDBA 地質學之火山爆發



PP的语法答案
借花献佛: 这是JCLL的
Structure: test1
1~10 BBABADAACA
11~20 ADBCDAACAA
21~30 CBCDABBBAA
31~40 DAABBCCDCA
41~50 ADCBCDAACB
51~60 AADDAABCCD
61~70 DACBBABBDA
71~80 ABCCDCDBDD
81~90 BDDADBCBDD
91~100 BCCCDDADDB
101~110 ABCBAAAABB
111~120 DABCBCBCAB
121~130 ADDCCACBDA
131~140 BBABBCADBB
141~143 CBC
Structure: test2 --这部分偶校对过, 都是对的
1~10 CCCBADADBD 11~20 ACABADCCCA 21~30 CDDDBBDCAC 31~40 BDCBCBCABD
41~50 CDDBBDCDCC 51~60 DADCCBDCCD 61~70 CBBBAADBDD 71~80 CBCCDAACAD
81~90 BBABABDACD 91~100 DBCDDBAADD 101~110 CBCABADDBB 111~120 DDAACDADDD
121~130 CADCDBCBBA 131~140 ADDCDABABA 141~143 BDA
 楼主| 发表于 2003-3-7 20:09:00 | 显示全部楼层
听力背景------让你胸有成竹
suyi总结了听力jj 的英文相关知识,感谢细心的suyi!

生物
3. SQUID
The squid breathes through gills, and may emit a cloud
of inky material from its ink sac when in danger. The
circulatory and nervous systems are highly developed.
The eye of the squid is remarkably similar to that of
man—an example of convergent evolution, as there is
no common ancestor. Some deep-sea forms have
luminescent organs.

4. SEA
The distribution of marine organisms depends on the
chemical and physical properties of seawater
(temperature, salinity, and dissolved nutrients), on
ocean currents (which carry oxygen to subsurface
waters and disperse nutrients, wastes, spores, eggs,
larvae, and plankton), and on penetration of light.
Photosynthetic organisms (plants, algae, and
cyanobacteria), the primary sources of food, exist
only in the photic, or euphotic, zone (to a depth of
about 300 ft/90 m), where light is sufficient for
photosynthesis.

5. 8. 11. ANT
Typically they include three castes: winged, fertile
females, or queens; wingless, infertile females, or
workers; and winged males. Those ordinarily seen are
workers.

Whenever a generation of queens and males matures it
leaves on a mating flight; shortly afterward the males
die, and each fecundated queen returns to earth to
establish a new colony. The queen then bites off or
scrapes off her wings, excavates a chamber, and
proceeds to lay eggs for the rest of her life (up to
15 years), fertilizing most of them with stored sperm.
Females develop from fertilized and males from
unfertilized eggs. The females become queens or
workers, depending on the type of nutrition they
receive. The first-generation larvae are fed by the
queen with her saliva; all develop into workers, which
enlarge the nest and care for the queen and the later
generations

Leaf-cutter Ant’s Feeding Habits: Cultivation is
practiced by certain ants that feed on fungi grown in
the nest. Some of these, called leaf-cutter, or
parasol, ants, carry large pieces of leaf to the nest,
where the macerated leaf tissue is used as a growth
medium for the fungus. Most leaf cutters are tropical,
but the Texas leaf-cutting ant is a serious crop pest
in North America.

Ant Hill: All species show some degree of social
organization; many species nest in a system of
tunnels, or galleries, in the soil, often under a
dome, or hill, of excavated earth, sand, or debris.
Mound-building ants may construct hills up to 5 ft
(1.5 m) high. Other species nest in cavities in dead
wood, in living plant tissue, or in papery nests
attached to twigs or rocks; some invade buildings or
ships.
在寒溫帶的森林地區,地底的溫度一般都比較低,因此木蟻便將大部分的蟻巢建築在地面上,一方面可減少因地面潮濕所帶來的寒氣,另一方面也能增加陽光照射的面積。


6. CICADA
Their life cycle takes 17 years in northern species
(the so-called 17-year locusts) and 13 years in
southern species; the two types overlap in parts of
the United States. The female deposits her eggs in
slits that she cuts in young twigs. In about six weeks
the wingless, scaly larvae, or nymphs, drop from the
tree and burrow into the ground, where they remain for
13 or 17 years, feeding on juices sucked from roots.
The nymphs molt periodically as they grow; finally the
full-grown nymphs emerge at night, climb tree trunks
and fences, and shed their last larval skin. The
winged adults, which generally emerge together in
large numbers, live for about one week.
Cicada larvae do little damage, but when adults appear
in large numbers their egg-laying may damage young
trees. Cicadas are sometimes kept for their song in
Asia, as they were in ancient Greece.

14. MANGROVE
Mangroves produce from their trunks aerial roots that
become embedded in the mud and form a tangled network;
this serves both as a prop for the tree and as a means
of aerating the root system. Such roots also form a
base for the deposit of silt and other material
carried by the tides, and thus land is built up which
is gradually invaded by other vegetation. Some
mangrove species lack prop roots but have special
pores on their branching root system for obtaining
air. The mangrove fruit is a conical reddish-brown
berry. Mangroves have been harvested destructively on
a large scale; the bark is a rich source of tannins,
and the wood is used for wharf pilings and other
purposes.

18. GIRAFFE

19. DOLPHIN
The dolphin has a dorsal fin that runs the length of
the body and a forked tail. Their powerful, horizontal
flukes, or tail fins, drive them through or out of the
water, while their forefins and dorsal fin are used
for steering. They feed on a variety of fishes,
especially flying fish, which they sometimes pursue by
leaping out of the water.
The U.S. navy has trained dolphins to act as
messengers to underwater stations, to rescue wounded
scuba divers and protect them from sharks, and to seek
and destroy submarines, using kamikaze methods; this
last project has met with considerable public
criticism.

20. LICHEN
usually slow-growing organism of simple structure,
composed of a fungus (see Fungi) and a photosynthetic
green alga (see algae) or cyanobacteria living
together in a symbiotic relationship and resulting in
a structure that resembles neither constituent.
Lichens commonly grow on rocks, trees, fence posts,
and similar objects. Lichens require no food source
other than light, air, and minerals. They depend
heavily on rainwater for their minerals and are
sensitive to rain-borne pollutants.
Before the discovery of aniline dyes, lichens were
much used for silk and wool dyes. Others have been
used in perfume manufacturing and brewing.

23. BEES
A typical colony consists of three castes: the large
queen, who produces the eggs, many thousands of
workers (sexually undeveloped females), and a few
hundred drones (fertile males). At the tip of a female
bee’s abdomen is a strong, sharp lancet, or sting,
connected to poison glands. In the queen, who stings
only rival queens, the sting is smooth and can be
withdrawn easily; in the worker bee the sting is
barbed and can rarely be withdrawn without tearing the
body of the bee, causing it to die. The workers gather
nectar; make and store honey; build the cells; clean,
ventilate (by fanning their wings), and protect the
hive. They also feed and care for the queen and the
larvae. They communicate with one another (for
example, about the location of flowers) by performing
dances in specific patterns. The workers live for only
about six weeks during the active season, but those
that hatch (i.e., emerge from the pupa stage) in the
fall live through the winter. The drones die in the
fall.
Bees are of inestimable value as agents of
cross-pollination.

25. YELLOWSTONE PARK
the world’s first national park. The area, a huge
craterlike volcanic basin, is a geological “hot
spot” and the site of several massive eruptions, the
most recent occurring 600,000 years ago. The plateau
is mostly formed from once-molten lava. Volcanic
activity is evidenced by nearly 10,000 hot springs,
200 geysers, and many vents and mud pots. The more
prominent geysers are unequaled in size, power, and
variety. The park also has petrified forests, lava
formations, and the “black glass” Obsidian Cliff.
The park has a wide variety of flowers and other plant
life. Bears, mountain sheep, elk, bison, moose, many
smaller animals, and more than 200 kinds of birds
inhabit Yellowstone, which is one of the world’s
largest wildlife sanctuaries. Fires in 1988 burned
about 36% of the park, but animal and plant life
rebounded quickly, as the nutrient influx in the ash
nourished the soil.

26. BEAR’S HIBERNATION
In cold climates bears sleep through most of the
winter in individual dens made in caves or holes in
the ground. This sleep is not a true hibernation,
但短文说是冬眠! as the bear’s metabolism remains in
a normal state and it may wake and emerge during warm
spells. The young, usually twins, are born during
winter in a very immature state. Cubs stay with their
mothers for about a year, and females usually mate
only every other year.

29. WOOPECKER
The sapsuckers (e.g., the red-breasted and
yellow-bellied sapsuckers) may damage or kill trees by
girdling them with small holes through which they eat
some of the cambium and drink sap; they also feed on
ants and wild fruit.

自然
1.    ALLOY
Alloys are used more extensively than pure metals
because they can be engineered to have specific
properties. For example, they may be poorer conductors
of heat and electricity, harder, or more resistant to
corrosion. Alloys of iron and carbon include cast iron
and steels; brass and bronze are important alloys of
copper; amalgams are alloys that contain mercury; and
chromium is an important additive in stainless steel.
Because pure gold and silver are soft, they are often
alloyed with one another or with other metals. New
alloys are being engineered for use in new technology,
including materials for the space program. Metallic
glasses and crystalline alloys have also been
developed, and metal alloys are sometimes bonded with
ceramics, graphites, and organic materials as
composites.

3. SOIL EROSION
In the United States 30% is natural erosion, while 70%
is because of human intervention. Suspended sediment
from erosion is one of the world’s greatest
pollutants. Sediment can fill reservoirs and navigable
waterways, impair wildlife habitats, increase flooding
and water treatment costs, and deplete valuable
topsoil. It can also concentrate harmful chemicals and
bacteria. Among the methods of preventing soil erosion
are reforestation, maintenance of fallow strips,
terracing, underdraining, ditching, deep plowing, and
plowing across slopes rather than up and down.

5. SNOWFLAKE
Snowflakes form symmetrical (hexagonal) crystals,
sometimes matted together if they descend through air
warmer than that of the cloud in which they
originated. Apparently, no two snow crystals are
alike; they differ from each other in size, lacy
structure, and surface markings.

7. GLEN CANYON DAM
on the Colorado River. It is one of the world’s
largest concrete dams. The dam, completed in 1963 and
dedicated in 1966 after completion of its
power-generation facilities, regulates the flow of the
upper Colorado and its tributaries and produces
hydroelectricity (since 1964). The dam sharply reduced
the seasonal flow of the Colorado downstream,
dramatically altering the ecology of the river in the
Grand Canyon. Changes in water releases have been
experimented with in an attempt to ameliorate the
effects of the dam.

9. JUPITER
Jupiter has thick, gaseous atmospheres and low
densities. It has no solid rock surface. The
temperature ranges from about -190°F (-124°C) for
the visible surface of the atmosphere, to 9°F
(-13°C) at lower cloud levels; localized regions
reach as high as 40°F (4°C) at still lower cloud
levels near the equator. Jupiter radiates about four
times as much heat energy as it receives from the sun,
suggesting an internal heat source. This energy is
thought to be due in part to a slow contraction of the
planet.
At least 17 natural satellites are known to orbit
Jupiter. They are conveniently divided into three
groups. The four largest—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and
Callisto—were discovered by Galileo in 1610, shortly
after he invented the telescope, and are known as the
Galilean satellites. A second group is comprised of
the four innermost satellites. The final group
consists of the eight satellites with orbits outside
that of Callisto. The seventeenth satellite, 1999J1,
was discovered in 2000. Eleven small previously
unknown satellites were reported in 2001. If these
sightings should be confirmed, it would raise the
number of Jovian moons to 28.
… The spot and other markings of the atmosphere also
provide evidence for Jupiter’s rapid rotation, which
has a period of about 9 hr 55 min.

11. MOON
The study of the moon’s surface increased with the
invention of the telescope by Galileo in 1610 and
culminated in 1969 when the first human actually set
foot on the moon’s surface. It has been established
that the moon completely lacks both water and
atmosphere. 但讨论说有水!

12. METHANE
In 1996, an oceanographic team returned to the site
with underwater cameras to probe the seafloor
visually. To their surprise, pictures came back
showing methane hydrate covering the seafloor like
freshly fallen snow. Methane hydrate is a solid that
forms when high pressure and low temperatures combine
to squeeze water molecules into a crystalline cage
around a methane molecule. Cores drilled into the
sediments revealed radish-sized lumps of hydrates,
which fizzled and evaporated when brought onboard.

14. ROCK
Igneous rock originates from the cooling and
solidification of molten matter from the earth’s
interior.
Sedimentary rocks originate from the consolidation of
sediments derived in part from living organisms but
chiefly from older rocks of all classes (ultimately
the mineral elements are derived from igneous rocks
alone). Sedimentary rocks are commonly distinguished,
according to their place of deposition, by a great
variety of terms, such as continental, marine (i.e.,
oceanic), littoral (i.e., coastal), estuarine (i.e.,
in an estuary), lacustrine (i.e., lakes), and
fluviatile, or fluvial (i.e., in a stream).
Metamorphic rocks originate from the alteration of the
texture and mineral constituents of igneous,
sedimentary, and older metamorphic rocks under extreme
heat and pressure deep within the earth (see
metamorphism). Some (e.g., marble and quartzite) are
massive in structure; others, and particularly those
which have been subject to the more extreme forms of
metamorphism, are characterized by foliation (i.e.,
the arrangement of their minerals in roughly parallel
planes, giving them a banded appearance). A
distinguishing characteristic of many metamorphic
rocks is their slaty cleavage.

19. CORIOLIS
tendency for any moving body on or above the earth’s
surface, e.g., an ocean current or an artillery round,
to drift sideways from its course because of the
earth’s rotation. In the Northern Hemisphere the
deflection is to the right of the motion; in the
Southern Hemisphere it is to the left. The Coriolis
deflection of a body moving toward the north or south
results from the fact that the earth’s surface is
rotating eastward at greater speed near the equator
than near the poles, since a point on the equator
traces out a larger circle per day than a point on
another latitude nearer either pole. A body traveling
toward the equator with the slower rotational speed of
higher latitudes tends to fall behind or veer to the
west relative to the more rapidly rotating earth below
it at lower latitudes. Similarly, a body traveling
toward either pole veers eastward because it retains
the greater eastward rotational speed of the lower
latitudes as it passes over the more slowly rotating
earth closer to the pole. It is extremely important to
account for the Coriolis effect when considering
projectile trajectories, terrestrial wind systems, and
ocean currents.

21. ATOM & NEUTRON
Almost the entire mass of the atom is concentrated in
the nucleus, which occupies only a tiny fraction of
the atom’s volume. The nucleus of an atom consists of
neutrons and protons, the neutron being an uncharged
particle and the proton a positively charged one.

22. OZONE / DNA
the sun damages the DNA of the exposed skin cells. In
response, the cells release enzymes that excise the
damaged parts of the DNA and encourage the production
of replacement DNA. Due to the increase in the
incidence of skin cancer and the effects of ozone
layer depletion, more attention is being placed on
protecting the skin from the sun’s ultraviolet rays
with broad spectrum sunscreens or clothing.

25. LAVA
Lava is magma that breaks the surface and erupts from
a volcano. If the magma is very fluid, it flows
rapidly down the volcano’s slopes. Lava that is more
sticky and less fluid moves slower. Lava flows that
have a continuous, smooth, ropy, or billowy surface
are called pahoehoe (pronounced pah HOH ee hoh ee)
flows; while a a (pronounced ah ah) flows have a
jagged surface composed of loose, irregularly shaped
lava chunks. Once cooled, pahoehoe forms smooth rocks,
while a a forms jagged rocks.

26. A neutron telescope
It is a big tube made of some metal, which will absorb
neutrons. Neutrons collide the metal to produce
another kind of particle, which can be studied by
scientists.


29. VENUS
Venus is often referred to as the sister planet of the
earth, because it is only slightly smaller in both
size and mass. Several important differences, however,
exist between the two planets.

32. SUNSPOT
Galileo observed them systematically for several weeks
before concluding that they had to be events taking
place on the solar surface. The temperature of the
spots is lower than that of the surrounding
photosphere; thus the spots are darker. All but the
smallest show a dark central portion (the umbra) with
a lighter outer area (the penumbra).
An 11-year cycle from one period of maximum activity
to the next is usually observed. During each 11-year
period sunspots appear first at higher latitudes and
later at latitudes closer to the solar equator as the
period progresses. The spots often form in pairs or
groups.

35. ENERGY
An early source of energy, or prime mover, used by
humans was animal power, i.e., the energy obtained
from domesticated animals. Later, as civilization
developed, wind power was harnessed to drive ships and
turn windmills, and streams and rivers were diverted
to turn water wheels (see water power). The rotating
shaft of a windmill or water wheel could then be used
to crush grain, to raise water from a well, or to
serve any number of other uses. The motion of the wind
and water, as well as the motion of the wheel or
shaft, represents a form of mechanical energy.

…NEW ENERGY source is tidal energy. Experimental
systems have been set up to harness the energy
released in the twice-daily ebb and flow of the
ocean’s tides


from Gter


 楼主| 发表于 2003-3-7 20:10:00 | 显示全部楼层
听力背景------让你胸有成竹
1、"厄尔尼诺"现象
是指南美赤道附近(约北纬4度至南纬4度,西经150度至90度之间)幅度数千公里的海水带的异常增温现象。
原来,太平洋洋面并不是完全水平的。在南半球的太平洋上,由于强劲的东南信风向西北横扫,将海水也由东南向西推动,结果是位于澳大利亚附近的洋面要比南美地区的洋面高出约50厘米。与此同时,南美沿岸大洋下部的冷水不停上翻,给这里的鱼类和水鸟等海洋生物输送大量养料。
令人不解的是,每隔数年,这种正常的良性环流便被打破。一向强劲的东南信风渐渐变弱甚至可能倒转为西风。而东太平洋沿岸的冷水上翻也会势头减弱或完全消失。于是太平洋上层的海水温度便迅速上升,并且向东回流。这股上升的厄尔尼诺洋流导致东太平洋海面比正常海平面升高二三十厘米,温度则升高2-5摄氏度。这种异常升温转而又给大气加热,引起难以预测的气候反常。经如,厄尔尼诺曾使南部非洲、印尼和澳大利亚遭受过空前未有的旱灾,同时带给秘鲁、厄瓜多尔和美国加州的则是暴雨、洪水和泥石流。那次厄尔尼诺效应造成了1500余人丧生和80亿美元的物质损失。关于厄尔尼诺现象的成因,迄今科学家们尚未找到准确的答案。
有人认为,可能是太平洋底火山爆发或地壳断裂喷涌出来的熔岩的加热作用造成洋流变暖,进而导致信风转弱和逆转。另有人则推断,也许是因为地球自转的年际速度不均造成的。他们说,每当地球自转的年际速度由加速变为减速之后,便会发生厄尔尼诺现象。令人忧虑的是,厄尔尼诺现象的出现越来越频繁。原来认为5年、7年乃至10年来临一次,后来又以3至7年为周期出现。但进入90年代以来似乎每两三年就降临一次。
尽管厄尔尼诺的成因尚未查清,但人类并未在它面前听天由命、无所作为。1986年国外科学家成功地提前一年预报了厄尔尼诺现象的来临,并积极探索温室效应与厄尔尼诺现象之间的联系。可以预言,人类终将能解开这一肆虐人类的大自然之谜,并找出办法,避免它的危害。

2、极光aurora
在北极圈内,经常可以看到一种绚丽壮观的「北极光」(aurora borealis);在南极圈内所见的类似景象,则称为「南极光」(aurora australis)(图1、2)。但在人口稠密地带却不常见。这是多少世纪以来引起人们猜测和探索的天象之谜,古代的中国人、日本人、希腊人、罗马人都有文字描述。从前爱斯基摩人以为是鬼神引导死者灵魂上天堂的火炬,许多民族也有他们不同的极光传说。长期以来,极光的成因一直未能得到满意的解释。在相当长一段时间内,人们一直认为极光可能是由以下三种原因形成的。一种看法认为,极光是地球外面燃起的大火,因为北极区临近地球的边缘,所以能看到这种大火。另一种看法认为,极光是夕日西沉以后,透射反照出来的辉光。还有一种看法认为,极地冰雪丰富,它们在白天吸收阳光,贮存起来,到了夜晚释放出来,便成了极光。总之,众说纷纭,没有定论。直到本世纪60年代,将地面观测结果与卫星、火箭探测到的资料结合起来研究,才逐步形成了极光的物理性描述。
现在人们认识到,极光一方面与地球高层大气和地球磁场的大规模相互作用有关,另一方面又与太阳喷发出来的高速带电粒子流有关,这种粒子流通常称为太阳风(solar wind)。由此可见,形成极光必不可少的条件是大气、磁场和太阳风,缺一不可。具备这三个条件的太阳系其他行星,如木星、土星和水星周围也会产生极光(图4、5),这已被实验观察的事实所证明。
 地球磁场分布在地球周围,受太阳风的吹拂而被包裹着,形成一个棒槌状的腔体,它的科学名称叫做磁层(magnetosphere) 。为了更具体一点起见,我们可以把磁层看成是一个巨大无比的电视映像管,它将进入高空大气的太阳风粒子流汇聚成束,聚焦到地磁的极区,极区大气就是映像管的萤光幕,极光就是电视萤幕上移动的图像。但是,这里的电视萤幕却不是20吋或是29 吋,而是直径为40000公里的极区高空大气。通常,地面上的观众在某个地方只能见到画面的五十分之一。在电视映像管中,电子束击中电视萤幕,因为萤幕上涂有发光物质,会发射出光,显示成图像。同样,来自空间的电子束,打入极区高空大气层时,会激发大气中的分子与原子,导致发光,人们便见到了极光的图像显示。在电视映像管中,是一对电极和一个电磁铁作用于电子束,产生并形成一种活动的图像。在极光发生时,极光的显示和运动则是由于粒子束受到磁层中电场和磁场变化的作用所造成的。
 极光不仅是个光学现象,而且是无线电现象,可以用雷达进行探测研究,它还会辐射出某些无线电波。有人还说,极光能发出各种各样的声音。极光不仅是科学研究的重要课题,它还直接影响到无线电通讯、长电缆通讯,以及长的管道和电力传送线等许多实用工程项目。极光还可以影响到气候,影响生物学过程。当然,极光也还有许许多多没有解开的谜。
长期观测统计结果显示,极光最经常出现的地方是南北地磁纬度67度附近的两个环带状区域内,分别称为南极光区和北极光区。在极光区内,差不多每天都会发生极光活动。在极光区所包围的内部区域,通常称为极盖区,在该区域内,极光出现的机会反而比纬度较低的极光区来得少。在中低纬度地区,尤其是近赤道地区,很少出现极光,但并不是说完全观测不到极光,只不过要数十年才难得遇到一次。1958年2月10日夜间的一次特大极光,在热带地区都能见到,而且显示出鲜艳的红色。这类极光往往与特大的太阳耀斑爆发和强烈的地球磁爆有关。
 在寒冷的极区,人们举目瞭望夜空,常常可见到五光十色、千姿百态、各式各样形状不同的极光。毫不夸大地说,在世界上简直找不出完全一样的极光形体来。从科学研究的角度,人们将极光按其形态特征分成五种:一是底边整齐微微弯曲的圆弧状极光弧(或称为弧状极光)(图6、7);二是有弯扭折皱的飘带状极光带(或称为带状极光)(图8、9);三是如云朵一般的片朵状极光片(或称为片状极光)(图10、11);四是像面纱一样均匀的帐幔状极光幔(或称为幕状极光)(图12、13);五是沿磁力线方向的射线状极光冕(或称为放射状极光)(图14、15)。
极光形体的亮度变化也是很大的。从刚刚能看得见的银河星云般的亮度,一直亮到满月时的月球亮度。在强极光出现时,地面上物体的轮廓都能被照清楚,甚至会照出物体的影子来。最为动人的当然是极光运动所造成的瞬息万变的奇妙景象。有些人形容事物变化得快时常说:「眼睛一眨,老母鸡变成鸭。」极光可真是这个样子。名符其实的翻手为云,覆手为雨,变化莫测,而这一切又往往发生在几秒钟或数分钟之内。极光的运动变化,是自然界这个魔术大师,以天空为舞台演出的一出光的话剧,上下纵横成百上千公里,甚至还存在近万公里长的极光带。这种宏伟壮观的自然景象,好像沾了仙气似的,颇具神秘气氛。令人叹为观止的则是极光的色彩,早已不足以用五颜六色去描绘。说到底,它的本色不外乎红、绿、紫、蓝、白、黄,可是大自然这一超级画家用出神入化的手法,将深浅浓淡、隐显明暗搭配组合,一下子变成天际的万花筒啦!这些色彩完全掌控在高层大气的气体成份,氧和氮是最重要的主角。根据非正式的统计,目前能清楚分辨的极光色调已达一百六十余种。

3、红外望远镜Ultra red telescopes
将入射的红外辐射信号转变成电信号输出的器件。红外辐射是波长介于可见光与微波之间的电磁波﹐人眼察觉不到。要察觉这种辐射的存在并测量其强弱﹐必须把它转变成可以察觉和测量的其他物理量。一般说来﹐红外辐射照射物体所引起的任何效应﹐只要效果可以测量而且足够灵敏﹐均可用来度量红外辐射的强弱。现代红外探测器所利用的主要是红外热效应和光电效应。这些效应的输出大都是电量﹐或者可用适当的方法转变成电量。一个红外探测器至少有一个对红外辐射产生敏感效应的物体﹐称为响应元。此外﹐还包括响应元的支架﹑密封外壳和透红外辐射的窗口。有时还包括致冷部件﹑光学部件和电子部件等。
简史 1800年﹐F.W.赫歇耳在太阳光谱中发现了红外辐射的存在。当时﹐他使用的是水银温度计﹐即最原始的热敏型红外探测器。1830年﹐L.诺比利利用当时新发现的温差电效应(也称塞贝克效应)﹐制成了一种以半金属铋和锑为温差电偶的热敏型探测器。称作温差电型红外探测器(也称真空温差电偶)。其后﹐又从单个温差电偶发展成多个电偶串联的温差电堆。1880年﹐S.P.兰利利用金属细丝的电阻随温度变化的特性制成另一种热敏型红外探测器﹐称为测辐射热计。1947年﹐M.J.E.高莱发明一种利用气体热膨胀制成的气动型红外探测器(又称高莱管)。在40年代﹐又用半导体材料制作温差电型红外探测器和测辐射热计﹐使这两种探测器的性能比原来使用半金属或金属时得到很大的改进。半导体的测辐射热计又称热敏电阻型红外探测器。
60年代中期﹐出现了热释电型探测器。它也是一种热敏型探测器﹐但其工作原理与前三种热敏型红外探测器有根本的区别。最早的光电型红外探测器是利用光电子发射效应即外光电效应制成的。以 Cs-O-Ag为阴极材料的光电管(1943年出现)可以探测到 1.3微米。外光电效应的响应波长难以延伸﹐因此﹐它的发展主要是近红外成像器件﹐如变像管。
利用半导体的内光电效应制成的红外探测器﹐对红外技术的发展起了重要的作用。内光电效应分光电导和光生伏打两种效应。利用这些效应制成的探测器分别称为光导型红外探测器和光伏型红外探测器(见光子型探测器)。
分类 按所利用的效应﹐红外探测器可分成三大类。
热敏(型)红外探测器 响应元吸收红外辐射而使温度升高﹐利用温度升高所导致的体积膨胀﹑电阻的改变﹑温差电动势的产生或自发电极化的改变等﹐度量入射辐射的强弱。
光子(型)(或光电型)红外探测器 响应元内的电子直接吸收红外辐射的光子能量而发生运动状态的改变﹐利用这一改变所导致的电导的改变或电动势的产生等﹐度量入射辐射的强弱。
整流(型)红外探测器 红外辐射是频率比无线电波更高的电磁波。与无线电波一样﹐也可用结型器件(如半导体结﹑金属-半导体结﹑金属-金属结﹑约瑟夫逊结等)作混频器﹐进行外差接收。不过﹐这种方法通常用于相干性的远红外辐射(即远红外镭射)的探测。

4、Gas Hydrate
又称甲烷水合物(Methane Hydrate)系水分子与甲烷于低温高压(0℃,26大气压或10℃,76大气压下)形成类似冰状物质,在常温常压下即分解成水与甲烷,Gas Hydrate在水深数百公尺的大陆边缘地区存在如太平洋海域之大陆边缘,大西洋的大陆斜坡,南极大陆周边海域,Kvenvoden 1996年估计Gas Hydrate总储量为1 x 1016(m)3,如能够开采将成为重要之能源,因为甲烷为温室效应气体,故其与全球气候之变化将为海突候之变化将为海洋钻探研究之重点。Gas Hydrate之存在与海底之稳定性亦有密切之关系。
什么是甲烷水合物
        「可燃烧的冰块」,这是许多人在介绍甲烷水合物时很喜欢引用的标题。在实验中人工合成的甲烷水合物就像一块不透明的冰块般纯白、洁净,在室温下一点火,它就自我燃烧起来(图一)。严格说来,甲烷水合物指的是甲烷气体分子在高压及低温的状态下,被呈笼状晶结架构的水分子所包合,而形成一种类似冰晶的化合物。这种气体分子和水分子的结合并不依靠化学的键结,纯粹是气体分子被包裹在水分子的笼状架构空隙中,与一般化学反应所产生的水合物性质并不相同。有的学者因而认为应称其为「甲烷气水包合物」(methane clathrate),以别于一般以化学键方式结合的水合物。另外,大自然中与水分子结成笼状包合物的气体分子并不限于甲烷,乙烷、丙烷等烷氢类气体,甚至二氧化碳、氮气等常见气体,在适当的高压低温条件下,均会与水分子结合成气水包合物。事实上,这类气水包合物的英文名称为「gas hydrate」,直译应为「天然气水合物」或「瓦斯水合物」。由于自然界中的天然气水合物其气体成份以甲烷为主(超过90%),因此一般人常把气水包合物称为「甲烷水合物」。本文随俗,用「甲烷水合物」代表学理上较严谨的「天然气气水包合物」一词。

5、科氏力:Coriolis Force
是法国的一个牛人Coriolis最早发现的。
地球自转会带来一种力,科学家称之为科里奥利力(简称科氏力,是一种非惯性参照系的惯性力)。相对于推或者拉产生的力而言,科氏力并不是一个“真实的”力,但是它的力量确实非常强大,强大到可以造就台风。
在旋转的的地球上,流体运动始终受到科氏力的作用,气象学上又称之为地转偏向力。对于大尺度大 气运动,科氏力具有十分重要的意义。
由于地球自转的关系,空气快一开始运动即无法与地球自转系统同步,因而产生偏转现象。举例来说,如果有甲、乙二人站在转盘上,甲自转动中心平抛出一球,给位于转盘边缘上的乙。站在盘外的丙,所看到求的飞行方向是直线,然而就乙和球的相对位置而言,乙所看到球的移动路径却是拋物线。
假设有一颗炮弹从北极点发射出去,如果地球不会自转,那么炮弹的飞行轨迹,从空中鸟瞰,应该是一直线。但是,事实上地球会自转,因此,随着地球的自转,炮弹在空中飞行的轨迹,如果站在北极点看过去,是不断偏右的。这就是科氏力的原理
⊙为什么赤道地区不能形成台风?
因为科氏力能使气流转弯,但赤道地区没有科氏力,所以虽然赤道地区很热,但仍无法形成台风,必须在纬度5度以上,才有足够的科氏力。
在横渡大西洋前往圣萨尔瓦多的时候,哥伦布发现蔚蓝色的海洋中,有一道深蓝色的河流自东向西流动着。这时,帆船快速地随波漂流。哥伦布在日记中写道:“我注意到海水明显地自东向西流动,好像上帝驱使的一样。”
其实,哥伦布看到的那道深蓝色的“河流”就是海流。海流是海水大规模相对稳定的运动,它遍及世界各个大洋,组成一个个好似封闭的循环。海流的运动有很多奇怪的地方。
首先,它运动的方向会在惯性作用下发生偏转。这个现象是物理学家科里奥利首先提出来的,人们就称这种力叫“科氏力”。
假设在没有科氏力作用下,海洋中运动的船只会沿着直线行进。然而,在科氏力作用下,船只的前进方向马上就改变了。由于我们这个装置是模拟地球北半球的运动。所以,偏转的方向会向右。

6、红海的盐份
世界上地质年代最年青的内陆海。位于亚洲阿拉伯半岛和非洲大陆之间﹐为印度洋的地中海。南以曼德海峡与阿拉伯海的亚丁湾相接﹐北经苏伊士湾和苏伊士运河﹐与大西洋的地中海相连。全长2253公里﹐东西最大宽度为306公里﹐总面积为45万平方公里﹐平均水深558米﹐最大水深3039米。1869年开辟了苏伊士运河后﹐使北欧-北印度洋航线缩短了9000公里﹐红海成为直接沟通印度洋和大西洋的重要国际航道。在通常情况下﹐红海海水呈蓝绿色﹐有时当红海束毛藻大量繁盛时﹐海水便转变为红褐色﹐故称“红海”。
地质地形 岸滨陆架水深大多浅于50米﹐且多礁石。红海沿岸广泛发育着珊瑚礁﹐两岸几乎全由珊瑚礁形成的曼德海峡﹐宽仅26~32公里﹐水深约 150米。海峡中散布着浅滩﹑暗礁和小岛﹐以丕林岛最大(面积仅13平方公里)。海峡下部还有一道海槛。这些都限制了红海与亚丁湾的水交换。红海的中轴线为中央海槽﹐大部深于1500米。海槽中部出现几处深邃的“V”形裂谷﹐为红海最深的地方。
海盆是大陆分裂的产物﹐非洲板块与阿拉伯板块之间的裂谷沿海盆轴通过。如将两侧大陆的轮廓线并合在一起﹐恰能密切啮合。研究证实﹐非洲大陆与阿拉伯半岛开始分离约在2000万年前﹐而在近300~400万年来﹐由于海底扩张﹐红海两岸仍以每年2.2厘米的平均速度继续分离。因此﹐红海是地球上最年青的海域﹐是个未发育成熟的大洋。海底沉积物﹐主要由珊瑚礁和其他钙质生物碎屑组成﹐并含有少量由风带来的陆源物质。
自20世纪60年代初以来﹐在裂谷底层水中﹐发现了若干水温和盐度特别高的地点﹐那里近底层水温达34~56 C﹐盐度达74~310﹐比其他深层海水盐度约高2~9倍。研究查明﹐这是由于裂谷扩展时﹐涌上来的熔岩加热了沿裂隙下渗的海水﹐而富含溶解盐类和矿物质的热水重新上升所至。
气候 干热的热带沙漠气候﹐并兼有季风气候特征。冬半年﹐北部盛行西北风﹐南部盛行东南风﹔夏半年﹐全海区多东北风﹐风速为3.4~10.7米/秒。全海区多尘埃﹐明朗的日子少。月平均气温2月最低(北部15.5 C)﹐8月最高(南部32.5 C)。降水多集中于冬季﹐年平均降水量北部28毫米﹐南部约127毫米。年平均蒸发量2100毫米。由于无径流入海﹐通过苏伊士运河与地中海的水交换也极微。只是由于从印度洋流入红海的水量超过红海流出的水量﹐才使红海不致因为强烈的蒸发而干涸。
水文特征 红海为世界上盐度最高﹑水温很高的海域之一﹐其平均值分别为40.35和22.67 C﹐月平均水温以2月最低(18 C)﹐8月最高(35.5 C)﹐年变幅为9~10 C。年平均盐度北高(>41.0)南低(36.5)﹐年变幅为2.0~2.5。主要水团有﹕红海表层水﹐位于 50~100米以浅的水层﹐温﹑盐度的时空变化较显著﹔变性亚丁湾水﹐分布于中部以南的次表层﹐由曼德海峡流入的亚丁湾水变性而成﹔红海深层水﹐只限于200~2000米的深层﹐温﹑盐度分布较均匀﹐季节变化和逐年变化也很小。
海流受控于海面的蒸发过程。冬﹑春季﹐源于亚丁湾进入红海的补偿流﹐在盛行东南风的影响下比较发达﹔夏季﹐风向相反﹐该海流只能在曼德海峡的中层流入。而在红海表层则出现一支由红海流向亚丁湾的风海流。在曼德海峡底层还经常有一支从红海流出的底层密度流。这支高温﹑高盐水体越过曼德海峡后向南扩展﹐成为印度洋次表层高盐水的主要源头。另外﹐在红海中还有相当显著的横向海流。
潮汐属半日潮性质﹐南北两端潮汐位相几乎相反﹐当南端为高(低)潮时﹐北端为低(高)潮﹔潮差不大﹐南北两端大潮潮差分别为1.0米和0.6米。潮波由印度洋经曼德海峡传入﹐协振潮特征较为典型。
生物和资源 海洋生物具有印度洋 -太平洋热带生物的区系特征。植物种类较少﹐动物种类颇多﹐鱼类有400余种﹐海豚﹑儒艮﹑鲨鱼和大型龟鳖等均属常见。初级生产力较低﹐叶绿素含量为19毫克/米 ﹐约与大西洋的马尾藻海相当。矿物资源有石油和蒸发盐矿床﹐以及在裂谷洼地底层软泥中新发现的重金属

7、Lava:
Lava is magma that breaks the surface and erupts from a volcano. If the magma is very fluid, it flows rapidly down the volcano’s slopes. Lava that is more sticky and less fluid moves slower. Lava flows that have a continuous, smooth, ropy, or billowy surface are called pahoehoe (pronounced pah HOH ee hoh ee) flows, while aa (pronounced ah ah) flows have a jagged surface composed of loose, irregularly shaped lava chunks. Once cooled, pahoehoe forms smooth rocks, while aa forms jagged rocks. The words pahoehoe and aa are Hawaiian terms that describe the texture of the lava. Lava may also be described in terms of its composition and the type of rock it forms. Basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite are all different kinds of rock that form from lava. Each type of rock, and the lava from which it forms, contains a different amount of the compound silicon dioxide. Basaltic lava has the least amount of silicon dioxide, andesitic and dacitic lava have medium levels of silicon dioxide, while rhyolitic lava has the most.

8、太阳黑子的活动
一般认为太阳黑子和其他活动性都起因于热对流和各部份自转速度不同。
可以设想在太阳上原来存在南北两个磁极,在对流层里面行成的经向磁场。太阳物质的不同部位以不同转速运动(这称为较差自转),赤道附近自转较快靠近及区转得较慢。于是“冻结”在太阳物质里的磁力线就会逐步被拉长并环绕太阳,带有纬向成分。经多次缠绕之后纬向成分愈来愈强。磁场强度与磁力线的密度成正比,在多次缠绕之后太阳物质里的磁场基本变成纬向而且强度大为增加。磁力线之间互相有斥力,磁场加强时斥力愈来愈强。既然磁场“冻结”在太阳物质里面,磁力线的斥力就给太阳物质加上一种膨胀压力,通常称为磁压。在太阳内部对流层内,由于不均匀性,各处的气体压力并不完全相同,如果某处磁压超过气压,这一团物质就会膨胀,结果会像水里的气泡一样受到上浮力的作用向表面升起,最后连磁力线带物质都冒出太阳表面。在磁力线集中穿过对流层顶部进入光球的地方就会形成黑子。在磁力线集中和穿入的部位形成的黑子分别为N极性和S极性。且赤道两侧的磁力线走向正好相反,所以在南半球和北半球形成的黑子对的极性也相反。
到此为止,我们发现所找到的资料对以上的说明差异性不大,均是以同一理论为观点。但在下来,讨论到为何磁力线会影响到温度时,便出现了新、旧两种差异性颇大的理论。
依照旧理论的说法,由于黑子里面磁力线大量密集,强大的磁场阻碍着太阳由内部到日面的对流,也就是电浆在黑子区的强大磁场之下不能随意移动,形成类似栓塞的效果,防止能量继续从内部流向表面。当栓塞上方的物质冷却后,已将近五千公里的时速流回太阳表面,周围的电浆便朝向黑子中心的磁场中进一步冷却并沉降,在磁场强度未衰之前,冷却效应便能够继续维持黑子结构的稳定。
由于磁拴塞能够防止热流向太阳面,因此黑子下层温度逐渐升高。天文学家在 1998 年六月的观测发现,太阳黑子其实很浅,表面下五千公里处的声速明显较高,显示该处的温度也较周围为高,与太阳黑子在表面处所呈现的现象刚好相反。新的理论同样以强大的磁场为基础,但却认为磁场不但没有抑制,反而大大加速能量的传送。
黑子的强大磁场把大部份热流变为磁流体波﹐沿磁力线迅速传播出去﹐能量就此化为波动(wave)﹐因而冷却下来。此点理论弥补了旧理论的不足﹐但其可信度仍有待证实。

9、纽约地铁历史
说起纽约地下铁,大家对它的感觉是,"纽约地下铁怎么那么复杂啊!",路线那么多,有 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9,A,B,C,D,E,F,G,J,L,M,N,Q,R,S,Z 等线,还有分快车 (Express),慢车(Local),到了尖峰时间时(Rush Hours),有些站还不停....等. 事实上从纽约地下铁于 1904 年通车时,就注定了它复杂的命运.
纵观纽约地下铁发展史,刚开始是私人企业获得纽约市政府的许可,自行建造, 自行营运,但是因为多数人要求将这些私营系统收回公有,于是于 1940 年代 ,纽约市政府把这些地铁系统收回公营.在收回的前十年,纽约的政客们为了这个问题,展开了血腥的政治斗争.
目前纽约人简单地将纽约地下铁分成三大系统:
1. IRT (Interborough Rapid Transit)
2. IND (INDependent Subway)
3. BMT (Brooklyn Manhattan Transit)
IRT 由于规格上跟 IND 以及 BMT 不同(IRT 所容纳的车厢比较小),所以无法与 IND 或 BMT 相连,而事实上 IND 与 BMT 早以相通,因此在路线上 IRT 是以数字表示, IND 与 BMT 系统是以英文大写字母表示.
三大系统中 IRT 是最早营运的系统,事实上在 IRT 于 1904 年通车前,在曼哈顿 (Manhattan)区,布禄仑(Brooklyn,布禄仑是老华侨讲的,也可叫布鲁克林)区,及皇后(Queens)区都有高架捷运系统,电车系统,美国职棒有一个队叫道奇队 (Dodgers),就是因为在布鲁克林区,许多行人要躲避来往的电车所取的名字. IRT 要建地铁,认为这是未来的趋势,于是就向纽约市府申请盖地铁,经过多年的施工, 于 1904 年通车,这一条路线,从纽约市府开始往北走,到了中央车站(Grand Central) ,往西行,沿着 42 街到时代广场(Times Square),在向北沿着百老汇大道(Broadway) 走,过了 96 街后,一条线继续沿着 Broadway 走,令一条线穿过中央公园到布朗克斯区(The Bronx),以布朗克斯动物园为终站.在布朗克斯区是以高架行驶. 在 1908 年时,这条线又向南延伸至 Brooklyn,以 Atlantic Avenue 为终点站.
这条路线最大的特点就是,总共有四条轨道,两条作慢车,两条作快车.这就是以后盖纽约地铁的标准,这也是纽约地铁与其他地区地铁与众不同的地方.
IRT 后来想要扩充当时的路线,并且积极反对其他私营企业盖地铁,结果未如所愿, 在 1910 年代,纽约市府通过一个计画叫 Dual Contracts.市府同意 IRT 及 BRT (Brooklyn Rapid Transit,也就是后来的 BMT)盖地铁.
当第一条地铁于 1904 年通车,虽然得到很多的赞扬,但也获得很多批评,例如尖峰时间拥挤,车厢骯脏等等,在那时很多人有一个共识,那就是公共运输系统不能为单一企业垄断,当然公共运输系统最好是由政府来经营,但是以当时纽约州及市的财力显然无法负担,变通的方法就是多家竞争,这是 1913 年 Dual Contracts 通过的缘由.经由 Dual Contracts 的实施, IRT 除了延伸原有的路线外,并将触角深入布朗克斯,皇后,及布鲁克林区. BRT 则首次突破布鲁克林区,进入曼哈坦区,而且又从曼哈坦区深入皇后区.对这两个公司来说,可是一大福音.
可是 Dual Contracts 的建设经费达到 3 亿美元(现值 50 亿美元),以当时纽约的财政,怎么负担? 变通的方法就是政府分担一半的建设经费,其余由 IRT 及 BRT 负担,但 IRT 及 BRT 可获得 49 年的经营权.
Dual Contracts 是实施了,但是其中风风雨雨不断,依照合约规定,工程必须于 1917 年前完成,但是没有做到.而且当时 IRT 及 BRT 受到当时市长 John F. Hylor 的挑战, Hylor 极力主张地铁公有,他力主建立一个公建,公营的地铁系统(也就是 IND 的由来),并且主张收回私有的地铁系统,他于 1925 年提出建立第三个地铁系统(也就是 IND ),由于他作风强悍,树敌甚多,于同一年的民主党初选中败给对手 Jimmy Walker. Hylor 的得意之作, Independent Subway(IND),于 1932 年在没人注意下通车了.
在此同时, IRT 及 BRT 受到劳资纠纷的影响,营运勉强维持,但是 BRT 就很倒霉了, 1918 出现了纽约地铁史上最惨重的车祸,当时 BRT 闹罢工, BRT 临时将职员派去做驾驶,有一职员没有注意到标志,遇到急弯时没有减速,因为车厢是木造的,整个列车撞墙,结果 102 人在此大车祸中罹难. Hylor 藉由此事件, 大肆抨击 IRT 及 BRT, BRT 后来由于经营不善,于 1923 年改组为 BMT.除此之外, Hylor 藉由种种压力,迫使 IRT 及 BRT 放弃不少权力.
IND 通车的同时,合并三大系统之声响起,虽然经过很多阻力,如劳工问题等,但经过多方的努力,纽约市府与 IRT,BMT 达成协议,政府出钱收购 IRT 及 BMT, 于 1940 年,合并大功告成! 合并之后,IRT,IND,BMT 现在只是纽约地铁的子系统.
合并之后,纽约市府将老旧的高架铁路视状况拆除,并且试着将 IND 与 BMT 连在一起,但因二次大战的关系而延误计划的进行.二次大战过后,于 1953 年为了统筹纽约地铁的事物,在纽约市府底下设立纽约市捷运局(New York City Transit Authority),在 NYCTA 成立后,经过多次计划后, IND 与 BMT 已经是一个系统,捷运局积极购买新车以加速汰旧换新.买的车种是以合约号码做为代号,如 R32,R33,R46,R62,R68 等,于 1979 年时将所有二次大战前营运的车辆淘汰, 1980 年代末期完成所有车厢冷气化.
但是由于劳工问题使纽约地铁于 1960 年代末期服务品质加速恶化,票价不断升高,铁道状况日益恶化,地铁犯罪率增加,车厢,车站涂鸦日益严重.于 1980 年代初期,联邦拨款补助纽约地铁改善服务品质,现在情况改善很多,你很少看到车厢有涂鸦的痕迹,地铁警力增多,铁道常看到有人做保养,现在的纽约地下铁,比以十年前好太多了.

10、高等法院
在美国,地方法院是民选的,但联邦法院及上诉法院却由总统提名,由参议院通过。参议院批准法官之标准是被提名者之资格,绝不能因被提名者之信念而否决。当克林顿当总统八年时,他公开说他单提名赞成堕胎者,当时共和党控制参议院,他们大多反对堕胎,但亦通过克林顿提名之法官,结果现在美国高等法院充塞了赞成堕胎之法官,包括两个极自由派之最高法院法官。

11、Socrates (苏格拉底) (469-399BC,古希腊哲学家)
生平 苏格拉底出生于雅典一个普通公民的家庭﹐据说他父亲是石匠﹐母亲是助产婆。他早年继承父业﹐从事雕刻石像的工作﹐后来研究哲学。他在雅典和当时的许多智者辩论哲学问题﹐主要是关于伦理道德以及教育政治方面的问题。当时有人将他看作是智者﹐但他自认为和智者不同﹐智者是以各种虚假的知识教授青年﹐而他所要寻求的则是真正的知识。他被认为是当时最有智慧的人。作为公民﹐他曾三次参军作战﹐在战争中表现得顽强勇敢。他曾在雅典公民大会中担任过陪审官﹐在任上他不顾众人的反对﹐否决过对 6位将军的不正义的判决。30僭主复辟时﹐他曾拒绝和他们合作。在雅典恢复奴隶主民主制后﹐苏格拉底被控﹐以藐视传统宗教﹑引进新神﹑败坏青年和反对民主等罪名被判处死刑。他拒绝了朋友和学生要他乞求赦免和外出逃亡的建议﹐饮鸩而死。在欧洲文化史上﹐他一直被看作是为追求真理而死的圣人﹐几乎与孔子在中国历史上所占的地位相同。多年来他被认为是反民主的﹑维护反动的奴隶主贵族利益的哲学家﹐近来已有人对此提出了不同看法。
苏格拉底本人没有写过什么著作。他的行为和学说﹐主要是通过他的学生柏拉图和克塞诺芬尼著作中的记载流传下来。克塞诺芬尼的《回忆录》中﹐将苏拉格底说成是一个道德高尚﹑助人为乐﹑遵守法律﹑有实际事务主张的好公民﹐对他的哲学思想则几乎没有谈到。在柏拉图的对话中﹐《申辩篇》﹑《克里多篇》和《斐多篇》直接叙述了苏格拉底被审判时的自辩以至服毒前的谈话﹔他的其他早﹑中期的对话﹐也都以苏格拉底作为主要对话者﹐阐述各种哲学思想。此外﹐和苏格拉底同时的诗人阿里斯托芬在他的喜剧《云》中﹐还将苏格拉底描写成为一个智者﹐以诡辩和谎言欺骗青年。但一般都认为这只是一种艺术创造﹐不是真实历史。
关于苏格拉底的生平和学说﹐由于从古代以来就有各种不同的记载和说法﹐一直是学术界讨论最多的一个问题。
首先﹐对柏拉图和克塞诺芬尼的记载﹐究竟哪个可靠的问题。西方学者有的倾向于柏拉图﹐肯定传统哲学史家对苏格拉底所作的评价﹐认为他是伟大的哲学家﹔有的倾向于克塞诺芬尼﹐认为苏格拉底只是一个道德家﹐而非哲学家。这两种看法现在还在继续争论。其次﹐在柏拉图对话中所叙述的哲学思想﹐有些是苏格拉底原来的思想﹐有些则是柏拉图自己的思想﹐不过是藉苏格拉底之口加以阐述和发挥而已。在柏拉图的对话中﹐很难将柏拉图的思想和苏格拉底的思想区别开来。现在﹐许多学者是以柏拉图早期以及部分中期的对话﹐并根据亚里士多德的记载﹐将讨论到的伦理道德和有关知识问题的内容﹐当作苏格拉底的哲学思想。

12、 水力发电(water power)
(一)水力发电:当位于高处的水(具有位能)往低处流动时位能转换为动能,此时装设在水道低处的水轮机,因水流的动能推动叶片而转动(机械能),如果将水轮机连接发电机,就能带动发电机的转动将机械能转换为电能,这就是水力发电的原理。水力发电一般可分为川流式、水坝(库)式及抽蓄式发电。抽蓄式发电是在白天用电尖峰时水库放水发电,夜间时则利用过剩的电力,把水抽上水库(电能转换为位能),以供白天用电尖峰时发电。
水坝(库)式:
本类型发电厂系在其上游设有大型水库储水,而获得落差发电。该类水库多设于坝下游近处,可随时作尖峰运转。水库水发电 没耗损水源
川流式
 本类型发电厂仅有引水设备,发电厂出力端视河川流量而定,此种发电厂业已落伍,而且不符合水力经济利用原则。
抽蓄式
 本式发电厂必需具备有上下两个蓄水池,发电后之水并不放流而是储存于下池。离峰时间利用系统剩余电力,将下池之水抽送至上池贮存,而于尖峰时间再利用上池之水发电,提供系统大量尖峰电力。换言之,此类型发电厂系将离峰时之低价值电能转换成尖峰时之高价值电能,极具经济开发之价值。如明湖及明潭抽蓄电厂。

13、Latin language
概述 最初是义大利半岛中部西海岸拉丁部族的语言﹐和奥斯克‧翁布利语同属古代印欧语系义大利克语族。从现存的古代铭文看﹐当时的拉丁语与奥斯克‧翁布利语相互影响﹐由于罗马的强盛﹐罗马人的拉丁语逐渐在并存的诸方言中取得了优势﹐在罗马成立共和国后(西元前5世纪初)成为共和国的官方语言。西元前5~西元5世纪共1000年间﹐拉丁语是欧洲一个最强大的政治实体(罗马共和国之后继以罗马帝国)的语言。通过拉丁语﹐古典希腊语中的丰富蕴藏传到了近代欧洲。从拉丁语中派生出葡萄牙语﹑西班牙语﹑法语﹑义大利语﹑罗马尼亚语等近代语言。拉丁文字和拉丁词汇是人类共有的语言资源。
语言特征 语言学家把印欧语系中的拉丁语归为k类语言﹐因为它的centum(百)之类的词﹐开头的辅音为[k] ﹐但在罗马帝国后期的通俗拉丁语中﹐c在e﹑i﹑y﹑ ﹑ 等母音前﹐已经改读或[ / ]了。拉丁语的重音有一定的规则﹕如果倒数第2个音节是长音﹐重音就落在这个音节上﹐否则在倒数第3个音节上。语法上不用冠词﹐名词有丰富的形态变化﹐保留了印欧语的呼格﹐但把印欧语真正的离格﹑工具格和大部分方位格归并成一个离格。动词的形态变化复杂﹐但比希腊语简单。由于动词有人称的变化﹐句子中的人称代词主语往往省略﹐还有异相动词﹐如loquor(我讲)﹐形式上是被动语态﹐意义上却是主动的﹔有独特的动形词﹐可作为分词和形容词使用。句子的词序比较自由﹑灵活。词汇基本上是来自印欧语的直接继承词﹐但也有许多来自其他语言的借词﹐例如早期希腊语借词 cupressus(柏树)已同化于拉丁语﹐后来文学语言中又引进了保持希腊语原形的外来词cyparissus。
历史 在罗马帝国全盛时期﹐随着罗马人军事和政治势力的扩张﹐拉丁语作为行政语言传播到西地中海的岛屿﹑伊比利亚半岛和高卢(今法国)﹐直至多瑙河流域的达齐亚(今罗马尼亚)﹐成为当时帝国核心地区使用的语言。5世纪﹐西罗马帝国覆亡﹐基督教会成为西欧的重要统治力量﹐与世俗政权并列。拉丁语是教会的官方语言﹐4世纪的接近民间语的《圣经》拉丁文译本是最具权威的教科书﹐因此从5~15世纪这1000年间﹐拉丁语是教会统治下的宗教﹑文化和行政的语言﹐又是西欧各民族间的交际语言﹐称作“中古拉丁语”。同时﹐书面拉丁语和民间通俗拉丁语的差别越来越大。各地通俗拉丁语演变为各罗曼语种。较为规范的中古拉丁语吸收了包括日尔曼语词在内的新词语﹐也采用了基督教会的宗教术语。由于中古拉丁语在一定程度上已脱离了古典拉丁语﹐它在文艺复兴时期的拉丁语作家看来不够规范和纯洁。后者的拉丁语以古典拉丁作家为范式﹐称作“新拉丁语”﹐至于民间通俗拉丁语可以说于8世纪末已告终结。
欧洲文艺复兴时期以后﹐各民族语言代替了拉丁语﹐但在学术领域里拉丁语仍有它的地位。医学﹑药学﹑动物学﹑植物学﹑化学﹑天文学等学科的新术语仍采用拉丁语或拉丁化的希腊语词根作为构词的基础。由于罗马法在后世享有的声誉﹐不少民族语言的法律用语和行政用语中仍保留了许多拉丁语措辞和表达方式。中世纪以来欧洲的寺院学校和世俗学校﹐以学习拉丁语﹐特别是拉丁语法为主修课程﹐因而称作语法学校或拉丁学校﹐现在大学里的医科仍然设有拉丁语入门课程﹐作为理解医学和药学术语的基础。
现代天主教会沿用拉丁语为第一官方语言﹐在教堂仪式中用拉丁语(直至1963年)。天主教会的拉丁语﹐另有它的演变﹐称“教会拉丁语”。
拉丁字母产生于西元前7世纪﹐其基础是伊特拉斯坎字母﹐后者又源出希腊文字。最早的拉丁铭文是刻在一个金属饰针上的一句话﹐考古学家鉴定﹐是西元前600年前制作的。拉丁字母曾被用作世界上许多语言的字母﹐或作为制订字母的基础

14、 Lichen 青苔, 地衣, 苔藓
藻类和真菌共生的特殊的植物类型。组成地衣的藻类主要有念珠藻(Nostoc )﹑共球藻 (Trebouxia )和堇青藻(Trentepohlia )等蓝藻和绿藻。组成地衣的真菌主要是子囊菌﹐少数为担子菌和极个别的藻状菌。地衣中的藻类能通过光合作用制造有机物﹐供自身和菌类的需要﹐菌类能吸收水分和无机盐﹐供藻类进行光合作用并使地衣保持一定湿度。这种共生关系使地衣具有独特的形态﹑结构﹑生理和遗传的生物学特性。
地衣的形态﹐按生长型可分为三﹐即叶状﹑壳状和枝状﹐也有一些种类属于过渡类型。典型叶状地衣的构造分上皮层﹑藻胞层﹑髓层和下皮层﹐以假根或脐固着于基质。典型壳状地衣的构造无皮层或只有上皮层﹐以髓层的菌丝固着于基质。枝状地衣的构造呈辐射状﹐有外皮层﹑藻胞层和髓。
地衣对大气污染的反应十分敏感﹐1968年在荷兰瓦赫宁根举行的大气污染对动﹑植物影响的国际会议上﹐与苔藓植物一起被推荐为大气污染的指示植物(见大气污染指示生物)。使用方法一般是对地衣在污染区的种类﹑数量和分布进行调查或用人工移植进行定时定点监测。地衣对二氧化硫 (SO )的敏感性依壳状地衣﹑叶状地衣和枝状地衣的顺序递增。有人据此将无任何地衣存在的区域划为SO 严重污染区﹐只有壳状地衣的区域划为SO 重污染区﹐有叶状地衣而无枝状地衣的区域划为SO 轻污染区﹐有枝状地衣正常生长的区域划为无SO 污染的清洁区

15、海豚
小型齿鲸类的统称。属哺乳纲鲸目齿鲸亚目﹐包括海豚各科和淡水豚总科共约60余种。主要种类有真海豚(Delphinus delphis )﹑宽吻海豚(Tursiops truncatus )﹑点斑原海豚 (Stenella frontalis )﹑蓝白原海豚 (S.coeruleoalba )﹑太平洋短吻海豚(Lagenorhynchus obliquidens )﹑江豚(Neophocaenaphocaenoides )等。淡水豚总科(Platanistidae)共有5种﹐中国只白鳍豚 (Lipotes vexillifer )1种。海豚是重要的水产经济动物。
特征 体呈纺锤形。外呼吸孔1个﹐位于头顶部﹐凹缘向前。上下颌具有多数齿。大多数有背鳍。真海豚是典型的海豚﹐体长2米左右﹐喙细长﹔额隆不明显。背鳍中等大﹐呈镰状后屈而端尖﹔鳍肢尖削。体背黑色或深褐色﹐腹部白色﹐体侧由鳍肢至肛门的上方有前后2个弧形浅色区﹐自眼向身后沿体侧至肛门处有2条浓色带﹐眼有黑色圈。江豚体长1.5~2米﹔头圆﹐额隆前凸﹐无喙﹐吻短宽﹔无背鳍﹔体铅灰色或蓝灰色。
生物学特性 绝大多数海豚生活在海洋里﹔有些小型海豚常栖息在河口咸淡水交汇处﹔淡水豚完全生活在江河中﹐中国长江的江豚可上溯至宜昌一带。多数海豚喜集群活动﹐可结成数十头或数百头的大群﹐活动敏捷﹐游泳迅速﹐有强烈眷恋性﹐常不舍弃受伤同伴而离去。食性广﹐外海性海豚多以群栖性鱼类为食﹐往往因追逐鱼群而接近沿岸或进入内湾。如东太平洋长吻原海豚(Stenella longirostris )主要追随金枪鱼移动﹔近岸海豚多以青鳞鱼﹑银鱼﹑叫姑鱼﹑ ﹑虾类和乌贼等为食。捕捞作业中常根据海豚的行踪判断某些鱼类群体的位置。海豚一般3~4龄性成熟﹐也有8~9龄成熟的。交配盛期大多在春﹑秋季﹐有的持续时间较长。孕期约10~12个月。每产1胎﹐偶有双胎。生殖间隔一般为2年。
资源及其利用 各大洋都有分布。真海豚﹑宽吻海豚﹑太平洋短吻海豚和几种原海豚资源量较大。白海豚属(Sousa )﹑热带真海豚 (Delphinus tropicalis )主要分布在暖海域。几种淡水豚只分布在江河中﹐资源量甚少。海豚可以机轮围网围或围刺网﹑定置渔具等捕获。肉可食用﹐皮下脂肪也可加工成工业用油。内脏和性腺﹑脑下垂体等可制造维生素和各种激素。皮可制革。骨胳可制成骨胶或骨粉肥料。有些种类智力发达﹐经过驯养可进行游戏活动﹐供人观赏﹐也可用于科学研究。为防止资源减少﹐已列为保护对象。

16、芭蕾舞
芭蕾舞演出用服装。包括男演员的紧身衫﹑裤﹐女演员的芭蕾舞裙﹑连袜裤及芭蕾舞鞋。
15~16世纪﹐初期的芭蕾舞服装崇尚豪华。17世纪﹐男演员穿的有金属丝箍的“拖涅利”短裙﹑女演员穿的“鲁尼耶”鲸骨裙﹐都显得笨重。为充分展现芭蕾舞的舞姿和技巧﹐历史上曾对芭蕾舞服装进行了几次革新﹐逐步使之完善。其中舞鞋和舞裙的改革比较重要。 [芭蕾舞鞋]﹕18世纪初﹐M.卡马尔戈发明用柔软材料制成的无跟鞋。1790年在无跟鞋的鞋头部位加入特殊的衬垫﹐以便于演员使用脚尖舞蹈。 [芭蕾舞裙]﹕1832年﹐M.塔廖尼开始使用E.拉米为她设计的一种露肩式连衣裙﹐称“浪漫主义芭蕾舞裙”。这种舞裙有紧贴的上衣身﹐下接过膝的钟形褶裙﹐裙部以数层白色薄纱裁制﹐配浅红连袜裤﹐便于演员展现大跳﹑打脚等舞姿。1880年芭蕾舞裙缩短﹐裸露大腿﹐称芭蕾短裙(tutu)﹐成为芭蕾舞标准裙。其裙部由4~5层丝绸绉褶构成﹐上连在相应尺寸的背心上。20世纪以来﹐现代芭蕾舞剧多采用艺术化的生活服装。

17、吉他的history
根据格罗夫(Grove)音乐辞典记载,古典吉他为鲁特琴族(Lute family)中具有琴格的拨弦乐器。关于吉他起源及其形成之研究,可说是众说纷纭﹔这些理论包括了:1.从古希腊齐特琴(Kithara)及吉他之语源学说(Etymology)中研究得来。2.部分学者推论认为吉他是从美索不达米亚(Mesopotamia),
及安娜多利亚(Anatolia)发现的长颈鲁特琴(Lute)所演变而来。3. 另一部分学者研究发现吉他是由阿拉伯传入欧洲,因为在埃及发现平扁琴背之哥普鲁特琴(Coptic Lute),或可认为是吉他的前身。由于以上大部分均为推论,且早期音乐文献多半失散,以至于在缺乏直接证据的状况下,目前对于吉他真正的起源尚未形成定论,只能从非古典吉他及其他音乐历史文献中寻找可靠而相关的蛛丝马迹。
在中世纪文学中出现和吉他有关的乐器名称,法国称之为Giterne,英国则是gitarer。法国诺曼底公爵(Duke of Normandy)所拥有乐师名单中,有赫特马(Jean Hautmar)弹奏Guiterre Latine及拉贝(Richard Labbe)弹奏Guiterre Moresche等古吉他琴族乐器之记载。马肃(Guillaume de Machaut)亦列出Morache et Guiternes为鲁特琴族之一。由于当时古吉他琴族中的拉丁吉他Guitarra Latina,吉他Guiterne及摩尔吉他uiterreMoresche等音量不能和鲁特琴相抗衡,因此在欧洲大陆吉他无法广为流传,直到文艺复兴时期西班牙出现了比维拉琴(Vihuela)及四弦吉他(Four-Course Guitar)之后,吉他的地位才开始奠定了雏形。
一般称古典吉他为西班牙吉他,因为从16世纪以后,比维拉琴及四弦吉他首先在伊比利半岛上萌芽发展,随后才发展成巴罗克时期五弦吉他,六弦吉他,最后六弦吉他亦在西班牙境内孕育出吉他第一黄金时期,到了现代古典吉他大师塞戈维亚(Andres Segovia)手中,更进一步将古典吉他艺朮推广到欧洲之外的亚洲及美洲,形成古典吉他史上的第二黄金期。在古典吉他的演变时期中,虽然也正是音乐史上巴罗克、古典、浪漫时期,器乐己成为主流﹔然而当时吉他却因为无法和交响乐团整体音量匹敌,加上其本
身之特殊风格,与乐团乐器之配置有所隔阂,因此成为一独奏乐器。
至于六弦吉他的出现,虽然大部分学者均相信是在法国以及义大利所开始,但却没有任何当代文献证明是由谁最早开始制作。反而有一位德国的小提琴与吉他制琴家雅寇﹒奥古斯特。奥图(Jacob Augustus Otto)自称是他在接受了德勒司登的乐团指挥纽曼先生(Herr Neumann)的一张六弦吉他订单之后,特别为
他所设计制造的。这似乎表示六弦吉他是在德国首先出现的,但是有件事绝对不能忽略,这位制琴师奥图早年均在义大利学习制琴,很有可能当时他就已经在学习过程中见过这种吉他的雏形了。至于西班牙采用六弦吉他的起源,虽然没有书面的记载,但一般相信大约在1820年左右,因为著名的西班牙吉他作曲家兼演奏家阿瓜多(Dionisio Aguado)为六弦吉他所写的教本于1825年在马德里出版,足以证明在此之前,六弦吉他已经有部分人开始使用,所以才会需要这样的教本。 在18世纪末至19世纪初,六弦吉他的发展也逐渐产生一些较为常见的特征,例如由于琴身上下较宽部分又加宽了些,使得曲线更为明显﹔琴桥固定琴弦的方式是将弦缠在本制插梢上,再插入琴桥上预先挖好的六个小孔中加以固定,取代
了这之前直接缠绕在琴桥上的设计﹔到了19世纪早期,在琴桥又加上了狭长的骨片或象牙片,作为下弦枕。此外,指板也继续延伸到音孔旁。虽然无法查证何时开始采用这种设计,但可以将其归功于一位德籍制琴家乔治﹒史道弗(George Staufer),值得注意的是,他也是后来移民至美国纽约,并成为美国制琴工业先驱的著名制琴师马汀(Christian Friedrich Martin)的老师。马汀后来在美国研究发展出本土的钢
弦吉他,也就是现在流行音乐界所广为使用的民谣吉他鼻祖,有别于当时在欧洲仍采用的羊肠弦吉他。
19世纪早期,吉他形状渐渐改变发展成接近现代吉他的外观:金属弦纽取代木制纽头﹔挖空的音孔取代玫瑰纹饰的音孔﹔琴桥提高了﹔扁平的背板变成标准形式﹔第十二琴格对准琴颈和音箱联结处,此外,华丽的装饰也几乎完全消失了。 在这名家辈出的时代,必须提到这位被称为近代吉他制作之父的著名人物,西班牙制琴师安东尼奥﹒托雷斯(Antonio de Torres Jurado, 1817~1892)。他所设计出的吉他新形式,可说是凌驾于在这之前所有形态的吉他。他将弦长定为65公分,琴身内部构造以响孔为起点,在音箱内部配置有七根扇形力木,并将原本较为窄小的琴身扩大,这种设计大大地提高吉他的音响效果,引起各著名制琴师的仿效,成为现代古典吉他的制作典范。19世纪早期,吉他形状渐渐改变发展成接近现代吉他的外观:金属弦纽取代木制纽头﹔挖空的音孔取代玫瑰纹饰的音孔﹔琴桥提高了﹔扁平的背板变成标准形式﹔第十二琴格对准琴颈和音箱联结处,此外,华丽的装饰也几乎完全消失了。 在这名家辈出的时代,必须提到这位被称为近代吉他制作之父的著名人物,西班牙制琴师安东尼奥﹒托雷斯(Antonio de Torres Jurado, 1817~1892)。他所设计出的吉他新形式,可说是凌驾于在这之前所有形态的吉他。他将弦长定为65公分,琴身内部构造以响孔为起点,在音箱内部配置有七根扇形力木,并将原本较为窄小的琴身扩大,这种设计大大地提高吉他的音响效果,引起各著名制琴师的仿效,成为现代古典吉他的制作典范。
 楼主| 发表于 2003-3-7 20:11:00 | 显示全部楼层
听力背景------让你胸有成竹
18、red wood红衫树
對於大部分的植物來說,種子是植物的生命之源,在其萌芽時需要充分的水分與氧氣,然而在河海交接的半鹹水沼澤中,紅樹林是如何適應並繁衍的呢?因在極度缺氧與鹽度高的沼澤軟泥上,既不適合種子發芽,也不利於幼苗的生長,因此紅樹科的植物就發展出這種先發芽、後落地生根的繁殖方式,以克服沼澤地的惡劣環境,也就是我們所謂的「胎生」。
紅樹林植物,也是經由開花、結果,來產生它們的下一代「種子」,但是即使種子成熟了,也不會從樹上脫落,相反的,包藏在果實體內部的胚芽開始發育,漸漸地變為帶有胚莖的「筆狀胎生苗」;胎生苗從母株吸收營養,並利用胚莖上的皮孔呼吸,繼續成長到成熟就可脫離母樹,直直落下並插入軟泥中,開始發根且長出新葉。水筆仔的胎生苗發育期大概約七、八個月左右會成熟,所以我們可以在夏末開花後,觀察到結果、胎生苗的發育而一直到第二年春天,胎生苗才會落下。


一、胎生苗
開花
每年5、6月,水筆仔就會開花,紅色花苞開著白色花,一朵朵像是白色的小星星般。灰或紅棕色的樹皮,花謝之後,便長出圓錐的果實。 現在正好處於水筆仔開花的期間,可以到紅樹林站旁的紅樹林步道觀賞。


圖片來源: http://wagner.zo.ntu.edu.tw/reserve/tanshui/tanshui.htm


發芽
果實成熟後,並不像一般植物會直接掉落,而是繼續留在母樹的枝條上,吸收養分並開始發芽,伸出胚莖,漸漸長成幼苗。而這就是所謂的「胎生」。


成熟
胎生苗在母樹上吸收其養分,繼續成長。圓錐形果實慢慢長成狀似筆桿表面光滑的胎生苗向上反曲,末端堅如筆狀,一枝枝垂掛在枝條間。頂端的胚芽和子葉包在蒂萼中,在母樹上度過脆弱的發芽期。而非掉入不適合幼苗生長的沼澤溼地中。


圖片來源:http://www.klm.ks.edu.tw/redtree/value.htm

掉落
大約到第二年春天,成熟的胎生幼苗會從母樹上脫落下來,直直插入濕軟的泥 地裏,開始獨立生活。如果掉在水中,則會隨水漂流,而胎生苗的內部具有間隙組織,充滿空氣,因此比重比水為輕,所以可以在水面漂流數月,且胚莖表皮還含有不好吃的單寧酸,可以避免軟體動物及甲殼類們的侵襲。一但接觸陸地,便會就地生長起來。


著根
當水筆仔一插入泥中,便從根尖伸長出許多支根,使其身體固定直立。支根不斷的向外伸展,來擴大其根莖,抓緊泥土,同時又可以幫助根部呼吸。


圖片來源:http://www.hknature.net/lnec/mangrove/produce3.htm


成長
水筆仔會漸漸地往上抽長,長出厚厚的綠葉,可以用來貯存水分。大約經過兩年後,就可以開花結果,繼續繁衍下去了。


圖片來源:http://www.hknature.net/lnec/mangrove/produce3.htm

二、板狀支持根
因為水筆仔生育的泥灘地,不但鬆軟,還常受潮浪衝擊,因此它就由莖幹下方伸出氣根,入土後向側方延伸形成板狀支柱根,藉此可以維持樹身的成長,又可增加呼吸面積,而支柱根主要是用來支撐樹體,支持根是從樹的主幹長出,懸垂向下再深入軟泥中,而支持根本身還在分支成更多的支持根,最後形成連續向四周延伸的根盤,這是最典型的紅樹林植物特徵,外型有點像蜘蛛的長腳。而支持根不但除了有支撐的作用外,也兼具呼吸的功能,五梨跤可說是這種根系的代表者之一。
河口水域,鹽分濃度高,水筆仔利用特殊的運輸方式,防止鹽分進入根部木質部而運送到其他組織中,不僅如此,它還能運用主動運輸方式,把多餘的鹽分自根部排出,我們稱這種機制為「鹽分排斥」。


三、地下根
地下根則是因應缺氧沼澤所發展出的另一種特殊根系,由主幹分出,在地下形成放射狀的橫向伸展,非常利於氧氣與水分的吸收,代表植物如海茄苳。


四、呼吸根
紅樹林會長出呼吸根以便在水面上交換氧氣,而呼吸根的功能和地下根相當,他的通氣組織很發達,在表皮滿佈皮孔以便空氣進出,以利於氣體的交換。呼吸根的形態不一,有從水筆仔的樹幹基部呈板狀形態,綿密的呼吸根側分出來後,在深入軟泥中,也做支持根用。有從樹身分支向下著地的,如五梨跤的支持根兼做呼吸根用,也有從地下莖向上伸出水面的棒狀結構,如海茄苳,而欖李則是橫向生長,像膝蓋狀彎曲並露出地表,


五、葉片
在紅樹林生長的地方,潮水起起落落,有的時候是近乎淡水的環境,有時則是接近海水的鹽度,為了適應這樣變化劇烈的的環境,紅樹林植物們發展出各種具有不同應變結構的葉片。且紅樹林的樹皮很厚,可以用來抵擋海水的浸泡;為了適應鹽分較高的環境,有的紅樹林會長出可以排出鹽分的葉子。而以台灣的紅樹林來說,水筆仔的葉片厚實光滑,可以儲存很多水份,且水筆仔、海茄苳、五梨跤的葉片具有厚厚的表皮,防止不必要的水分散失;欖李則具有肉質的厚葉片,能夠保存更多的水分,另外,海茄苳的葉背密生絨毛,也可以防止水分蒸發,葉部還具有鹽腺,可以聚集鹽分並把多餘的鹽分排出去。另外也有研究認為,紅樹林植物可以利用落葉的方式,把植株多餘的鹽分集中在老葉,落葉時一併排除。

紅 樹 林 名 稱 的 由 來 , 是 源 自 於 一 種 紅 樹 科 植 物 紅 茄 苳 , 這 種 樹 的 木 材 、 樹 幹 、 枝 條 、 花 朵 都 是 紅 色 的 , 其 中 樹 皮 的 部 分 可 以 提 煉 出 單 寧 作 為 紅 色 染 料 , 馬 來 人 於 是 稱 它 的 樹 皮 為 紅 樹 皮 , 而 中 文 名 稱 則 叫 做 紅 樹 。 紅 樹 林 泛 指 像 紅 茄 苳 這 類 , 生 長 在 熱 帶 、 亞 熱 帶 地 區 的 河 口 、 海 岸 沼 澤 區 域 的 耐 鹽 性 常 綠 灌 木 或 喬 木 樹 林 。 英 文 則 以 - mangrove 來 通 稱 所 有 的 紅 樹 林 植 物 , 該 字 是 由 西 班 牙 文 中 的 樹 - ( mangle ) 和 英 文 中 的 樹 叢 - ( grove ) 組 合 而 成 。

19、蜜蜂--------弹簧提供
Organization in the Colony There are three kinds of bees in a colony.  
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The queen is the only female in the hive that can reproduce and lays thousands of eggs.  A new queen is selected by the workers when the old queen dies or the hive is too large and part of the colony must leave.
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The male bee, the drone, has only one purpose.  This purpose is to mate with the queen. There are fewer drones than any other bee in the hive.  Once the drones have mated with the queen they are eventually driven away from the hive.
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Worker bees perform all the other roles in the colony. They construct the hive, feed the queen, care for the young, and forage for nectar and pollen to create honey.
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Bee Dance  Scout bees fly to flowers using the position of the sun. They can determine their direction, how much energy  they use, and the time of day.  
When they get close to a food source, the bees use their ability to detect smells and their ability to see to pinpoint the location of the pollen and nectar.  

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When the worker bee returns to the hive with nectar and pollen from the flowers, she begins to perform one of two "dances" that will communicate the direction, distance, and amount of the food available for the other bees.
When the food source is close, less that 35 yards away, the round dance is used.  The returning bee turns in circles changing to the left and then to the right.  The richer the food source, the longer
and more vigorous the dance.  The round dance does not communicate any specific direction, but
the forager bee does provide the flowers'''' scent, which other bees use to find the flowers.

The waggle dance is used to communicate the location of food sources more than 35 yards away.
It consists of two loops with a straight run in the middle, much like a figure 8.  The direction of the straight run determines the direction to the food source.  The rate of looping and duration of buzzing indicate the distance to the food supply.

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Dr. Karl von Kirsch
It was Dr. Karl von Kirsch, an Austro-German zoologist, who first decodedthe honeybee dance.  Dr. von Krisch won a Noble Prize for his work in this behavior in 1973. But, Dr. von Kirsch has not gone unchallenged in his work.  Dr. Adrian M. Wenner from the University of California believes that the waggle dance simply allows the other bees to get the scent of the food and not direct them to the food.  

20、anthill 的背景资料:

蟻丘不只是螞蟻在建構大型地底居室的過程裡,所挖掘堆積的一堆泥土那麼簡單而已。蟻丘的結構異常複雜,它們的形狀對稱、富含有機物質、通道與巢室密布相連,同時還夾雜了草、葉、莖幹碎片,以及小圓石與細小木炭。實際上,蟻丘是突出於地表的螞蟻都市,裡面住滿了螞蟻與其幼期個體。蟻丘最常見於氣溫與濕度皆極端的棲息地,例如:濕地、溪流河岸、針葉林區以及沙漠地區。而建造蟻丘的螞蟻種類,往往也是最擅長進行氣候調節的螞蟻。

北歐森林中的保溫大蟻丘

截至目前為止,我們研究最透徹的蟻丘,是分布於寒帶地區的山蟻屬螞蟻所建築的大型結構物。這種大型建築是由體色呈紅色或黑色的林蟻,包括:多梳山蟻及其近親種螞蟻建構而成,並成為北歐森林裡的常見景觀。這種蟻丘可以由地表堆疊高達1.5公尺,目的在提高內部螞蟻的體溫,讓牠們可以在春季期間儘早展開覓食,也可以提早開始撫育下一代子嗣。蟻丘外圍的一層殼狀物可以減少熱量與濕度的流失,蟻丘突出可以大幅增加表面積,讓蟻巢接受更多陽光。部分山蟻屬螞蟻所築蟻丘的朝南斜坡較長,可以進一步增加太陽能的接收量。由於蟻丘斜坡有固定方向,因此幾世紀以來,阿爾卑斯山脈的居民一直將蟻丘當成天然指南針。螞蟻所採集的植物性物質,在腐爛的過程裡還可以產生更多熱量,成千上萬隻螞蟻在擁擠的居室裡一起工作,也會產生熱量。

在歐洲或美洲的寒、溫帶森林中,經常可以發現如小土丘般的蟻巢,此類螞蟻隸屬山蟻亞科下的木匠蟻屬,俗稱為木蟻(wood ant)或林蟻。蟻丘是什麼呢?應該說是木蟻的摩天大樓吧!為何木蟻要將牠們的家建得如此高大呢?一般而言,昆蟲幼蟲在發育的過程中,環境溫度的高低經常影響其發育速率的快慢,螞蟻的幼蟲也不例外。在寒溫帶的森林地區,地底的溫度一般都比較低,因此木蟻便將大部分的蟻巢建築在地面上,一方面可減少因地面潮濕所帶來的寒氣,另一方面也能增加陽光照射的面積。但並非所有的螞蟻都建築如城堡般雄偉的蟻丘,如在台灣中低海拔的樹林中經常可以發現到的懸巢舉尾蟻(Crematogaster rogenhoferi),便是把蟻巢建築在樹上,其形狀如同一個繡花球般,因此常被誤認為蜂巢;渥氏棘蟻(Polyrhachis wolfi)則把整個蟻巢建在地下,地面上只有一個進出小孔,很難想像地下有個規模浩大的螞蟻帝國。在木蟻的蟻丘中有著許許多多的房間,房間有大有小各具不同功用。蟻丘的最底部也就是在地面以下的部分,此處的溫度雖比地面以上為低,但一年四季的溫度變化相對較為穩定,且較不易受螞蟻天敵的攻擊,因此這裡是為蟻后的房間及(存放較脆弱蟻卵的)卵室的最好位置;而蟻丘高處受到陽光照射及漸離地面的雙重影響,其溫度也愈高,木蟻便依照各齡期幼蟲發育所需之溫度來分配房間,愈高之處為齡期愈大的幼蟲室,而最溫暖的部位就屬化蛹室了;存放食物的房間則零散地分布在蟻丘中。舉尾蟻的蟻后室則位於球狀蟻巢內部的中央,幼蟲室分布在周圍,越往外層溫度越高,幼蟲室中的蟲齡也越大。但並非所有的螞蟻都有如此完整的「房間管裡」,如爪哇分針蟻(Pachycondyla javanus)的蟻巢,雖有卵室及幼蟲室等的分別,但卻是零星地分布於巢內。瘤顎家蟻屬(Strumigenys)種類的巢則僅有一個房間,大大小小的個體均生活在一起。

21、Ozone [5EJzEJn] n.新鲜的空气, [化]臭氧
A blue gaseous allotrope of oxygen, O3, formed naturally from diatomic oxygen by electric discharge or exposure to ultraviolet radiation. It is an unstable, powerfully bleaching, poisonous oxidizing agent with a pungent, irritating odor, used to deodorize air, purify water, treat industrial wastes and as a bleach.
臭氧一种气态氧气的同素异形体,O3在紫外线辐射下通过电子放射或暴晒从双原子氧气自然形成。它是一种不稳定的具有强漂白性的,有毒的氧化剂,有臭的刺激性的气味,用来除去空气的异味,净化水,处理工业废物和作为漂白剂

22、Lava:
Lava is magma that breaks the surface and erupts from a volcano. If the magma is very fluid, it flows rapidly down the volcano’s slopes. Lava that is more sticky and less fluid moves slower. Lava flows that have a continuous, smooth, ropy, or billowy surface are called pahoehoe (pronounced pah HOH ee hoh ee) flows; while a a (pronounced ah ah) flows have a jagged surface composed of loose, irregularly shaped lava chunks. Once cooled, pahoehoe forms smooth rocks, while a a forms jagged rocks. The words pahoehoe and a a are Hawaiian terms that describe the texture of the lava. Lava may also be described in terms of its composition and the type of rock it forms. Basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite are all different kinds of rock that form from lava. Each type of rock, and the lava from which it forms, contains a different amount of the compound silicon dioxide. Basaltic lava has the least amount of silicon dioxide, andesitic and dacitic lava have medium levels of silicon dioxide, while rhyolitic lava has the most.

23、co-movement
A key feature of the Burns and Mitchell economic was to focus on the amount of cyclical co-movement or coherence among a large number of economic variables. This co-movement is the prime characteristic of their definition of the business cycle: "...a cycle consists of expansions occurring at about the same time in many economic activities, followed by similarly general recessions, contractions, and revivals which merge into the expansion phase of the next cycle;...in duration business cycles vary from more than one year to ten or twelve years..."

24、美国内战时期的诗人--关于Emily Dickinson
Dickinson, Emily Elizabeth,American poet who was virtually a recluse at her home in Amherst, Massachusetts, where she wrote more than a thousand verses infused with emotional depth and subtlety. The first volume of her poetry was not published until 1890.

25、关于阑尾--------newlife提供
In human anatomy, the vermiform appendix (or just appendix) is a small sac connected to the large intestine. It was once believed to be a useless and purely vestigial organ; but newer evidence suggests it most likely has a function in the lymphatic system. It is one of a number of areas of the colon where lymphatic tissue is present; but in the appendix it is present in a particularly high proportion, although it degenerates with age and comes to resemble other areas of lymphatic tissue in the colon.

The appendix is a small tube located at the end of the caecum, the first part of the large intestine. It is called vermiform appendix as it resembles a worm. It is usually eight to ten cm. long. Its structure is made of the same tough fibrous outer covering as protects the entire alimentary canal(消化道). There is a layer of muscular tissue under the outer covering and further a layer of lymphoid tissue(淋巴组织). The function of the appendix, which is performed by this lymphoid tissue, is to neutralise the irritating waste material generated in the body or the organic poisons introduced through the skin or membranes.

26、关于第一次世界大战中AIRSHIP的背景知识----------由newlife提供
By the start of the Great War the airship had been developed into two main types - rigid and non-rigid (technically, the latter is more accurately described as pressure-rigid). Cylindrical in cross-section, both were given buoyancy by gas and motion by engine-driven propellers and were controlled by vertical rudders and horizontal elevators.

In the rigid type, a solid framework, which might be likened to a skeleton, supports an external covering of fabric called the envelope (a very few experimental types had a metallic covering). Within the framework are contained bags of gas called balloonets. In the non-rigid, the envelope''s shape is maintained by the pressure of the gas that fills it; there is no framework. The rigid''s control car and engines are suspended from the framework; in the non-rigid they are attached directly to or suspended directly from the envelope. (In some later rigids the engines were mounted internally, driving the propellers by transmission belts.)

There was an intermediate type, now long vanished, called the semi-rigid. It had a pressure-rigid envelope but a solid keel.

The rigid airship, employed so extensively by Germany during the Great War, was perfected soon after the turn of the century by a former Wurttenberg army cavalry officer, Ferdinand Adolf August Heinrich Graf von Zeppelin, who had been inspired by a balloon ascent he had made in the United States on 19-Aug-1863. 2 His craft were, naturally , known as Zeppelins. "Zeppelin" is a proprietary, or trade, name (such as Kodak, Ferris Wheel and Autogiro), and is applied properly only to craft constructed by Luftshiffbau Zeppelin G.m.b.H. or firms licensed to use its patents. It should thus be spelled with a capital Z; modern writers who spell it in lower case are mistaken in their apparent belief that it is generic. 3

It has become customary to refer to all German rigid airships of the Great War as Zeppelins, but in fact not all were. Some were constructed by a rival firm, Luftschiffbau Schutte-Lanz G.m.b.H., which employed a framework of laminated plywood instead of the aluminum alloy used in Zeppelins. 4

The vast amount of literature devoted to German airships can easily, and has, led to the belief that these were the dominant LTA craft of the Great War. Actually, the British navy was the greatest exponent of the airship, receiving more than 200 non-rigids during 1915-1918 for anti-submarine patrolling. This type was also used, although in far fewer numbers, by the U.S. Navy and the French and Italian armies and navies. The German army and navy also had a handful.

The rigid airship no longer exists; none has been built since the 1930s. 5 The demise is usually blamed on the Hindenburg disaster 6 although that had been preceded by the loss of a number of American, British, French and Italian rigids. All airships flying today are non-rigid types, popularly known as blimps.

飞艇按其结构可分为软式、半硬式、硬式。

(1)软式飞艇艇体由主气囊和前后副气囊组成(图1)。气囊不仅要求密封,还要有相当强度能承受一定的压强。气囊上装有安全活门,压强超过规定值时能自动放气保证气囊不被胀破。主气囊内充浮升气体,副气囊内充空气。副气囊的作用是在不排放主气囊内气体的条件下,保持主气囊内外压强差为定值。当飞艇爬高,外界大气压强降低时,副气囊放气使主气囊增大容积,从而保持主气囊原来的内外压强差。当外界大气压强增大时,向副气囊内充气使它膨胀,从而压缩主气囊的容积,使主气囊的压强仍能保持略高于外界大气压强。设置前后副气囊还可调节浮力中心的位置。仅向后副气囊充气时,重心后移,飞艇产生抬头力矩;反之,产生低头力矩。

(2)半硬式飞艇气囊构造与软式飞艇相似,但在气囊下部增加刚性的龙骨架,组成半硬式飞艇的艇体。

(3)硬式飞艇艇体由刚性骨架外罩蒙布或薄铝皮构成整个艇体不密封,主要起维持流线型和连接各部分的作用。艇体内部由隔框分割成许多小气室,每个小气室内放有密封的小气囊,内充比空气轻的气体。在地面时,小气囊没有完全胀满气室。随着飞行高度增加,外界大气压强降低,囊内气体随之膨胀,在达到规定高度时,气囊恰好胀满气室。众多小气囊可提高飞艇的抗损性和安全性。部分小气囊受损,整个飞艇的浮力不会完全丧失。

第一艘飞艇是法国的H·吉法尔于1852年制成的。1900年德国的齐柏林公司开始制造大型硬式飞艇,在第一次世界大战期间,曾多次用飞艇进行远程轰炸。


27、雪花
对于一片六角形雪片来说,由于它表面曲率不等(有凸面、平面和凹面),各面上的饱和水汽压力也不同,因此产生了相互间的水汽密度梯度,使水汽发生定向转移。水汽转移的方向是凸面→平面→凹面,也就是从曲率大的表面,移向曲率小的表面。六角形雪片六个棱角上的曲率最大,边棱部分的平面次之,中央部分曲率最小。这样,就使六角形雪片一直处在定向的水汽迁移过程中。由于棱角上水汽向边棱及中央输送,棱角附近的水汽饱和程度下降,因而产生升华现象。中央部分由于获得源源不断的水汽而达到冰面饱和,产生凝华作用。这种凝华结晶的过程不断进行,六角形雪片逐渐演变成为六棱柱状雪晶。
这是假定外部不输送水汽的理想状况。事实上,事物与周围环境保持着密切的联系,空气里总是或多或少存在着水汽的。如果周围空气输人水汽较少,少到不够雪片的棱角向中央输送水汽的数量,那么雪片向柱状雪晶的发展过程继续进行。在温度很低水汽很少的高纬和极地地区,便因为这个原因经常降落柱状雪晶。
空气里水汽饱和程度较高的时候,出现另外一种情况。这时周围空气不断地向雪片输送水汽,使雪片快速地发生凝华作用。凝华降低了雪片周围空气层中的水汽密度,反过来又促进外层水汽向内部输送。这样,雪片便很快地生长起来。当水汽快速向雪片输送的时候,六个顶角首当其冲,水汽密度梯度最大。来不及向雪片内部输送的水汽,便在顶角上凝华结晶;这时,顶角上会出现一些突出物和枝杈。这些枝叉增长到一定程度,又会分叉。次级分叉与母枝均保持60的角度,这样,就形成了一朵六角星形的雪花。
在高山或极地的晴朗天气里,还可见到一种冰针,象宝石一样闪烁着瑰丽的光彩,人们把它叫做钻石尘。冰针的生长有二种情况:一种是在严寒下(-30℃以下)湿度很小时水汽自发结晶的结果,另一种是在温度较高(-5℃左右)湿度较大时沿着雪片某一条辅轴所在的顶角特别迅速生长的产物,是雪花的畸形发展。

28、KEYSTONE SPECIES ----由Ripkin 提供

A keystone is the stone at the top of an arch that supports the other stones and keeps the whole arch from falling. A keystone species is a species on which the persistence of a large number of other species in the ecosystem depends.

If a keystone species is extirpated from a system, the species it supported also will disappear, as will the other dependent species. Keystone species may be top carnivores that keep prey in check, large herbivores that shape the habitat in which other species live, important plants that support particular insect species that are prey for birds, bats that disperse the seeds of plants, and many other types of organisms.

An example of a keystone predator is the sea otter, which is a keystone in the kelp forest ecosystem. Kelp forests are marine forests of seaweed that provide food and shelter for large numbers of species of fish and shellfish. They also protect coastlines from damaging wave action. Sea otters prey on sea urchins and keep their numbers in check.

If the sea otters are extirpated, large numbers of sea urchins feed heavily on the kelp forests, causing severe declines in the kelp forests and their associated species. Wherever otters have been reintroduced, kelp communities have returned. Ironically, many fishers resent sea otters because they view them as competitors for valuable commercial fish and shellfish, such as abalone. They do not realize that without the otters, the abalone would not have kelp forest habitat.

Protecting keystone species is a priority for conservationists. Unfortunately, the keystone functions of a species may not be known until it has been extirpated and the ecosystem changes. Keystone species may occur at any level of the ecosystem, from plants and herbivores (plant eaters), to carnivores (meat eaters), and detritivores (waste eaters). Where a keystone species has been identified, efforts to protect it also will help protect the other species in delicately balanced ecosystems.

29、sunwind-----弹簧提供
从日冕不断发射出的稳定的粒子流。日冕具有极高的温度,作用于日冕气体上的引力不能平衡压力差,因此日冕中很难维持流体静力平衡,日冕不可能处于稳定静止状态,而是稳定地向外膨胀,热电离气体粒子连续地从太阳向外流出,就形成了太阳风。
近年来的观测表明,存在于日冕中的冕洞同地球附近的太阳风有很好的相关性,而长寿命的冕洞 [M区] 更是太阳风的风源。
    开始人们是从慧尾总是背向太阳这种天象中猜测到太阳风的存在,近年来利用卫星观测近地空间,终于证实了太阳风的存在。
太阳风的理论模型,是按稳定态球对称的日冕向外扩张的物质流处理的,这种理论模型必然导致无结构的太阳风。但实际上太阳风中很少存在这种状态,几乎所有观测到的参量都有一种无规则的起伏。起伏的原因可归诸于空间的不均匀性或随时间变化的因素,是日面上发生的天体物理现象在行星际空间的反映。相对宁静的太阳风只有在太阳活动极小年才会存在。从太阳活动水平不同的年份的观测结果中可以看出,随着太阳活动程度的降低,太阳风的流速也降低。当太阳风流速降至每秒320公里时,可近似认为太阳风处于宁静状态。

    既然太阳风起源于日冕,人们有理由认为太阳风的化学成分和日冕的化学成分相似。奇怪的是,根据“水手2号”、“探险者34号”、“维拉3号”的观测结果,长时期的平均氦丰度约为氢的4.5%左右,低于太阳光球中的氦氢丰度比。这个事实意味着氢在日冕膨胀过程中也许比氦更加容易从太阳中逃逸,也就是说,不同荷质比的离子在日冕膨胀中会分离,导致日冕重粒子的引力沉淀。此外,太阳风中氦氢丰度比变化很大,升降幅度有时可达一个数量级之多,成因至今还是个谜。观测表明,高氦量等离子体常常在日地间激波或地磁扰动突然开始后5—12小时内出现,这说明它与太阳爆发有关。

    太阳风中的动力学现象包含许多随时间变化的复杂结构 [高速等离子体流、日地间激波、阿尔文起伏等] ,大致可分为2类:

·        同日面上长寿命的活动区有关的;

·        同日面上爆发过程有关的。常以激波的形式出现,这种激波是由耀斑区抛射出的快速等离子体压缩太阳风而形成的。因为等离子体具有较高的电导率,阻止了快速的相互渗透,所以只要抛射出来的快速等离子体与太阳风的相对速度超过声速,就会形成这种激波波阵面。在地球附近,这种激波的平均传播速度约每秒500公里;日地间激波平均传输的时间约55小时,由此算出平均传播速度每秒为760公里,较地球轨道附近实测激波速度略大,因此传输过程中可能有某些微小的减速。

    太阳风的大尺度性质可用流体模型来描述,其初级理论是美国天体物理学家帕克完成的。近年来的理论发展主要集中在研究2种模型上:

·        单流体模型     假设能量方程中电子温度和质子温度相同,并且认为在日冕底层区域之外唯一的能源来自热传导。

·        双流体模型     假设电子温度和质子温度不同,需要分别建立电子气体和质子气体的能量方程,并且通过电子和质子间的库仑碰撞交换项将2个能量方程耦合起来。

    目前尚难判断哪种模型更好。单流体模型所预言的温度值与观测值较为吻合,但未能导出电子和质子的温度差异;双流体模型导出电子温度大于质子温度,这个推断与观测结果一致,但是与实际观测值比较起来,电子温度的理论值偏高,质子温度的理论值过于偏低。不论是单流体模型还是双流体模型,只靠来自热传导和对流的能量传输是不够的,也许还有另外的能量传输形式,如激波、磁流体力学波、磁湍流等。同样,太阳附近对日冕增温有影响的机制,可能在日冕外区域仍起作用。

30、Jupiter -----弹簧提供
木星是太阳系九大行星中最大的一个,它的体积可以容纳1300多个地球。它的质量是地球质量的300多倍。把太阳系所有其他行星的质量全加起来还不及木星质量的一半。 木星在椭圆轨道上绕太阳运行一周需要11.86年,与太阳平均距离是7.78亿千 米.由于木星离太阳遥远, 木星表面温度比地球表面低得多。根据“先驱者”11号宇宙飞船测得的温度约为-150°C。 木星自转很快,自转一周只需9小时50分30秒,是太阳系中自转最快的一个。由于快速自转,使木星形状变扁,不是正圆形,而是中腰鼓起的椭圆形。很快的旋转速度带动它的大气层顶端的云层,竟以约35400千米/小时的速度旋转,这种高速产生的离心力就把云层拉成线丝,从而使木星赤道上空高高隆起。木星圆面上有许多带状纹,每条带状纹都与木星的赤道平行。这些带状纹是木星的大气环流。 木星是一个没有固体表面的星球,表面充满液态的氢。地球上的物体只要获得11.2千米/秒的速度就能飞离地球,木星上的物体必须具有60千米/秒的速度才能摆脱木星的引力,飞离木星。 在离木星几十万千米处围绕木星赤道的区域,有一个由黑色碎石块构成的环,叫做木星环。木星环的厚度约30千米,宽数千千 米,以7小时的周期围绕木星高速旋转。每个石块的直径从数十米到数百米。这个木星环的外缘距离木星中心约12.8万千米。在木星的南半球,有一个颜色明亮而鲜艳的大红斑,300多年来,大红斑的形状几乎没有变化,大小和颜色却经常变幻。长度最长时达到4万千米,最少也有1万多千米,一般保持在2万千米左右,宽度变化不大。大红斑颜色有时鲜红,有时略带棕色或淡玫瑰色。当它的位置在东西方向上时会有漂移。 木星探测器探明:大红斑原来是木星大气云层中的一个大旋涡,其中飘浮着五颜六色的云,有棕红色的、棕黄色的、橙色的、白色的,五彩缤纷。
它们主要由红磷化合物构成,而且不停地激烈运动。科学家们批出,这实际上是木星大气中的带电粒子,在木星旋转磁场作用下的螺旋运动中形成的猛烈风暴。








 楼主| 发表于 2003-3-7 20:13:00 | 显示全部楼层
30、MUSICAL TERMINOLOGY

PITCH is the perceived highness or lowness of a sound. Variations in frequency are what we hear as variations in pitch. The greater the number of sound waves produced per second, the higher the sound we hear; the fewer sound waves per second, the lower the sound.

INTERVAL is the distance between two different pitches.
? A tone (or a "note") is a musical sound of definite pitch.

MELODY is the element that in many musics makes the most direct appeal to the listener. It is often what moves us emotionally, what we remember and whistle, and hum. A melody is a succession of single pitches or tones perceived by the mind as a unity. Just as we hear the words of a sentence not singly but in relation to the entire thought, so do we perceive the pitches of a melody in relation to each other.

INTENSITY (amplitude, dynamics, volume) is the amount of energy affecting the vibrating body, and is heard as the loudness or softness of a sound.

Terms to Describe Intensity:
1. Very Loud --------------fortissimo
2. Loud --------------------------- forte
3. Medium Loud ------ mezzo forte
4. Medium Soft ------- mezzo piano
5. Soft ---------------------------- piano
6. Very Soft ---------------- pianisimo
7. Gradually getting louder
8. Gradually getting softer
9. Suddenly loud
10. Suddenly soft

TIMBRE is the tonal quality or color of a sound. This quality is determined by the wave shape, which is determined in turn by factors such as the shape of the vibrating body, its material (metal, wood, human tissue), and the method used to put it in motion (striking, blowing, plucking).
1. Vibrating Stimulus
(Drum Stick, Bow, fingers, pick)
2. Vibrating Body
(Drum Head, String, Metal, Air)
3. Resonator
(Body of Drum, body of violin or guitar)
4. Other
(Snares, guitar distortion, spider-web casing on balafon)

Each tone we hear is actually a composite of tones called the harmonic series. The pitches produced simultaneously by the vibrating sections are called partials, overtones, or harmonics.

The first partial, often called the fundamental, is the lowest frequency and is perceived as the loudest. This is what the ear identifies as the specific pitch of the musical tone.


TIMBRE: CLASSIFYING MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
IDIOPHONES

Instruments made of naturally sonorous materials not needing any additional tension as do strings or drumskins. The basic question is how they are set into vibration.

Methods:

concussion (struck together)
struck
stamped
shaken
scraped
plucked
rubbed (friction)

AEROPHONES

Aerophones include what are usually called “wind instruments,” with the addition of a few instruments with a different acoustical principle called free aerophones. There are two essential factors: a tube enclosing a column of air, and a devise for setting that air into vibration.

MEMBRANOPHONES

Membranophones produce sound by stretching a membrane over an opening. Most, but not all, membranophones are called drums. They are classified according to the following features:

material
shape
skins (head)
fastening of the skins
playing positions
manner of performance

CHORDOPHONES

Chordophones are instruments with strings. The number of stringed instruments can be reduced to four functional types:

zither
lute
lyre
harp

ELECTROPHONES

Instruments where vibrations are produced mechanically or reproduced mechanically.

DURATION is the length of time a pitch or tone is sounded. Musical time is usually organized in terms of a basic unit of length, known as a BEAT or regular pulsation. Three terms related to duration are meter, rhythm, and tempo.
Meter refers to regularly recurring pulses of equal duration, generally grouped into patterns of two, three, four, or more, with the first pulse in each group accented. These patterns of strong and weak pulses are called beats.
Rhythm is sometimes used, like duration, to refer to all phenomena related to the sounding of a tone through time. Specifically, it can refer to the uneven durations of particular notes, overlaying or operating within the meter.
Tempo: speed of the pulse or meter.

TEXTURE

MONOPHONIC, or single-voiced. (Voice refers to an individual part or line, even when we are talking about instrumental music).
HETEROPHONY usually results in a melody combined with an ornamented version of itself.
POLYPHONY occurs when two or more lines are combined, distributing the melody among the voices.
HOMOPHONY, where a single voice takes over the melodic interest, while the accompanying voices take a subordinate role.

发表于 2003-6-3 07:48:00 | 显示全部楼层
佩服各位。团结就是力量。
发表于 2003-6-17 22:03:00 | 显示全部楼层
太谢谢了!

这样一来,比我慢慢看地理杂志来积累背景要快多了.


发表于 2003-6-18 18:49:00 | 显示全部楼层
31、无线电波(即赫兹波)。-----弹簧提供

赫兹波除微波波段兼用厘米表示它的波长外,一般均用频率代替波长,其单位为赫(Hz)。频率范围约在30千赫(kHz)~30000兆赫(MHz)之间。其波长范围在10-3~104米之间。当赫兹发现电磁波以后,首先被用于无线电信之传递试验。最早的无线电讯,借控制火花放电时间,构成电码讯号。火花放电是一种波长很短的减幅波,它的振幅衰减极快,且干扰极大,故不能用它做长距离通信。后经改良用电弧放电以获得长波的等幅波,使通信距离稍增,但其副波干扰仍不能免,且能量较小不能作远距离通信。后来俄国人波波夫与意大利业余无线电家马可尼同时独立地发明天地线制,马可尼且于天线中加接调谐电路,试验越过大西洋电码通信获得成功,至此无线电通信开始进入实用阶段。由于弧光电波的影响,误认为波长越长,电力越大,通信距离越远;事实上在短波通信特性未发现以前,确实如此。欧洲各国甚至竟用波长10000米以上,耗费巨资建设电台,并用频率很低的交流发电机供应电磁波能直接发射。长波无线电之传递,以地波为主。其折射率在海面与平原之吸收率均较小。在传播途中的衰减大致与距离成正比,因受气候影响甚微,在有效距离内通信可靠,故迄今仍在使用中,不过波长已减至1000米左右。长波无线电特别适宜于极地通信及海上导航,因短波无线电在极地失去电离层反射作用,无法达成远距离通信。长波通信须高大之天线。自超短波及微波通信实现后,已可利用轻便之转继站构成通信网,故长波通信已在淘汰。中波波段为标准广播波段,其波长自200~545米。适用于国内及邻接地区间作广播之用。国土广大之国家均规定其最大电力及广播服务区。最大电力以天线发射之电场强度为标准。中波广播波段自540~1650千赫(kHz)。中波广播也可用于空中导航。短波通信之特点是:即使是不太强的无线电波也能跨越大洋,而完成极远距离通信。短波无线电讯,由于频率较高,其电磁波由天线发出后,因地球表面矿物质之吸收率甚高,故不论发射电力多大,不出百里以内,其沿地面进行的电磁波即被吸收以尽,其衰减率以对数率随距离而加快。但在数百里以外的地区,因向空发射之天波受高空电离层的反射而再度出现。这种高空反射波的反射体是天空中大气因受紫外线辐射所形成的离子化气体层。围绕地球的这一层离子化气体称之为“电离层”。无线电波也和光波一样有四种特性:它能被物体吸收、反射、散射及折射。当电磁波前进时,遇金属物,则有一部分被吸收,有一部分即反射,且金属物与电子线波在不垂直又不平行之方向者,电磁波就发生散射。当电磁波经过不同的介质时,将发生折射的现象。




32、火山-----------boynton提供

世界上60%以上的活火山都分佈在太平洋沿岸新形成不久的巨大山脈和島嶼;另外有集中在地中海、非洲東部和大西洋中部的地殼發生巨大破裂的地方。因為這些區域的岩漿可以很容易的持續流出,所以成為活火山。

  噴出的岩漿經過冷卻凝結,如果將火山口堵塞,則需要一段時間,在這段期間,地底的運動仍然活躍的進行著,因為火山口塞住,所以這股力量便在地底累積,等到累積到相當的程度,就又產生另一次的火山爆發,此種類型的火山就稱為休火山。

  如果在地殼堅硬的地方,所有的裂縫都被堵住了,地底的岩漿再也不能爆發出來,這類的火山就稱為死火山。


33、季风---------弹簧提供
现代人们对季风的认识有了进步,至少有三点是公认的,即:(1)季风是大范围地区的盛行风向随季节改变的现象,这里强调“大范围”是因为小范围风向受地形影响很大;(2)随着风向变换,控制气团的性质也产生转变,例如,冬季风来时感到空气寒冷干燥,夏季风来时空气温暖潮湿;(3)随着盛行风向的变换,将带来明显的天气气候变化。

  季风形成的原因,主要是海陆间热力环流的季节变化。夏季大陆增热比海洋剧烈,气压随高度变化慢于海洋上空,所以到一定高度,就产生从大陆指向海洋的水平气压梯度,空气由大陆指向海洋,海洋上形成高压,大陆形成低压,空气从海洋海向大陆,形成了与高空方向相反气流,构成了夏季的季风环流。在我国为东南季风和西南季风。夏季风特别温暖而湿润。

  冬季大陆迅速冷却,海洋上温度比陆地要高些,因此大陆为高压,海洋上为低压,低层气流由大陆流向海洋,高层气流由海洋流向大陆,形成冬季的季风环流。在我国为西北季风,变为东北季风。冬季风十分干冷。


34、景深与光圈-----melody8818提供
http://www.cs.mtu.edu/~shene/DigiCam/User-Guide/950/depth-of-field.html
http://www.cs.mtu.edu/~shene/DigiCam/User-Guide/950/aperture-priority.html


35、Big eyed Bug Rearing----luoluo11提供
Natural History
Big-eyed bugs are true bugs in the order Hemiptera.  The two most common species are Geocoris pallens and Geocorcis  punctipes.  Both are predators and occur in many habitats, including fields, gardens, and turf grass. Big-eyed bugs are considered an important predator in many agricultural systems and feed on mites, insect eggs, and small insects such as pink bollworm, cabbage loopers and whiteflies.  Adult Big-eyed bugs are small (about 3 mm) black, gray, or tan with proportionately large eyes.  Eggs are deposited singly or in clusters on leaves near potential prey.  They develop with incomplete metamorphosis (there is no pupa) and take approximately 30 days to develop from egg to adult depending on temperature.  Both nymphs and adults are predatory, but can survive on nectar and honeydew when prey are scarce.  Big-eyed bugs, like other true bugs, have piercing-sucking mouthparts and feed by stabbing their prey and sucking or lapping the juices.  Although their effectiveness as predators is not well understood, studies have shown that nymphs can eat as many as 1600 spider mites before reaching adulthood, while adults have been reported consuming as many as 80 mites per day.

Rearing
Big-eyed bugs are easy to rear.  Adults can be purchased (see Suppliers) or collected in the wild by using a sweep net in a local alfalfa field, roadside or other lush area that may have potential insect prey.  A Petri dish provides adequate housing when a piece of paper towel or filter paper is placed in the bottom and cut to fit the dish.  Adults and nymphs should be housed separately as the larger individuals will eat the smaller ones.  If you plan on raising large numbers of them, you may want to invest the time in making an artificial diet (see Cohen in the References), however they will also do well with fresh insect eggs (purchased), whitefly nymphs or aphids provided every few days.  For moisture, place a one-inch piece of fresh green bean (replaced every couple of days) in the dish.  A small piece of cotton placed in the adult cage provides a place for oviposition as well as a hiding place.  eriodically remove the cotton from the cage (eggs are pale orange) and place it in a new cage with a fresh piece of green bean.  In a week to ten days, nymphs will emerge and a protein source (eggs, diet, etc...) will need to be added.  When cages become dirty or moldy, transfer adults and nymphs to a fresh cage.  Adults can be handled with soft forceps or with a small soft paintbrush.  Nymphs should be handled with a soft brush only.

36、Giant Shield Volcanoes
The giant shield volcanoes on Mars are truly huge. The largest are three times as high as the biggest Earth volcanoes. They also are bigger in diameter. Thus, the biggest volcano on Mars is comparable to a pile of nearly 100 Hawaiian volcanoes. Despite this difference in size, the Mars shields look a lot like shield volcanoes on Earth. Both have the same broad flat profiles, large central calderas, and similar lava flow features. The giant martian shields are also much older than any Earth volcano. The youngest lavas on the martian shields are about 20 to 200 million years old. The oldest lavas are near 2.5 billion years old. Thus, these giant volcanoes were active for billions of years. This may explain their large size. On Earth, plate tectonics is always moving volcanoes away from their magma sources. Such movements are very slow, but they mean that most Earth volcanoes have distinct lifetimes. In the Hawaiian islands, for instance, volcanism lasts fo only a few million years on any given island. In contrast, the lack of plate tectonics on Mars allowed volcanoes to just keep growing. The only limit on their final size was the volume of lavas available.


37、A Brief History of the Guitar----luoluo11提供

There is evidence that a four string, guitar-like instrument was played by the Hittites (who occupied a region now known as Asia Minor and Syria) around 1400 BC. It had characteristically soft, curved sides--one of the primary features of anything identifiable as a guitar or predecessor. The Greeks also produced a similar instrument which was later modified by the Romans, though both versions appear to have lacked the curved sides. What is interesting here is that it seems this Roman cithara appeared in Hispania (now known as Spain) centuries before the Moorish invasion.

It had long been assumed that it was only after this invasion and the introduction of the Arabic ud in the South that a guitar-like instrument first appeared in Spain. But with the Roman cithara arriving centuries prior, we might say that although the ud influenced the development of the guitar it is not the true ancestor. According to this theory, the Spanish guitar derived from the tanbur of the Hittites, kithara with a "k" of the Greeks and then the cithara with a "c" of the Romans.

However, following the arrival of the Moors, the Roman cithara and the Arabic ud must have mixed and exerted mutual influences on one another for many centuries. Although there is no specific documentation, it is likely that makers of uds and citharas would have seen each other's work, if only through presentation by traveling troubadours. By 1200 AD, the four string guitar had evolved into two types: the guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar) which had a rounded back, wide fingerboard and several soundholes, and the guitarra latina (Latin guitar) which resembled the modern guitar with one soundhole and a narrower neck.

In the late 1400's, the vihuela was born by adding doubled strings and increasing its size. It was a large plucked instrument with a long neck (vibrating string length: 72 to 79 cm) with ten or eleven frets and six courses. It was the vihuela which became the preferred instrument of the Spanish and Portuguese courts and remained so until the late 1600's when orchestral and keyboard instruments became more prominent.

Although the guitar existed concurrently during this period, the vihuela and lute had overshadowed it until the end of the 17th century when the lute had acquired too many strings, was too hard to play and tune, and the vihuela was slowly replaced by the four and five course guitars (which had seven and nine strings respectively: one single high string, and three or four remaining courses--or pairs--of strings). It was perhaps the addition of the fifth course in the late 16th century that gave the guitar more flexibility and range and thus improved the potential of the repertoire that led to its ascent.

By the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, some guitars already used six single strings and employed fan struts under the soundboard. These struts were added for structural support to allow thinning of the top for greater resonance and for better distribution of sound across the board. Other contemporaneous developments included the use of a reinforced, raised neck using ebony or rosewood for the fingerboard, and the appearance of machine tuners in place of the wooden pegs. (It is noteworthy that the raised fingerboard had a great impact on the technique of the instrument since the strings were then too far from the soundboard to rest one's finger on the face for support.) These guitars would be unmistakably recognized by us as early classical guitars.

Beginning with the early 19th century, in the works of Agustin Caro, Manuel Gonzalez, Antonio de Lorca, Manuel Guiterrez from Spain and other European makers including Rene Lacote, and Johann Staufer, we find the direct predecessors of the modern classical guitar. By 1850, the guitar was prepared for its most important breakthrough since its inception, the work of Antonio Torres Jurado. With the encouragement of Julian Arcas and his own brilliant intuitions, Torres refined the strutting of the guitar to include as many as seven struts spread out like a fan under the soundboard. He increased the body size and the width of the neck considerably. These improvements allowed for greater volume and bass response as well as the development of a left hand technique for richer repertoire. The guitar was now prepared for the demands of the solo performer and the concert stage.

Although there have been continued developments since the middle 1800's, our modern guitar retains most of what was developed nearly 150 years ago. No one can say if we have reached the end of the evolution of the guitar, but until now, many of the best guitars from the point of view of volume, projection and sheer beauty of tone were made by the great makers, Torres, Ramirez and Arias from the second half of the last century!


38、insomnia----luoluo11提供
self-care techniques
in addition to the wise use of supplements and maintaining a healthy lifestyle, there are a number of other methods you can adopt to capture elusive sleep. you may find one particular technique does the trick or that a combination of several works best for you.

acupressure
many of my insomnia patients report significant relief when they do acupressure self-massage. stimulating specific points on your heel, wrist, and ankle can help to calm the nerves, relieve anxiety, and induce sound sleep. while you may feel immediately relaxed, it may take a month or more of doing acupressure daily to improve your troubled sleep patterns.

progressive muscle relaxation
both sleep researchers and the american psychological association have found progressive muscle relaxation to be beneficial for insomnia. in this exercise you learn what it feels like to relax by comparing relaxation with muscle tension. deep breathing is also an integral part of the technique.
   
bach flower remedies
flower remedies are a very safe and natural way to treat the anxieties, stress, and depression that often underlie insomnia. many brands of flower remedies are currently available, with virtually thousands of flower products from which to choose. i like the original extracts, known as the bach flower remedies (named for dr. edward bach, who originated the method in the early 20th century), which i find the most reliable.
there are 38 bach flower remedies, each one intended to treat a different negative emotion. for my patients struggling with insomnia, i often recommend white chestnut and scleranthus. white chestnut helps to chase away those obsessive worries that can keep you awake, while scleranthus dispels feelings of uncertainty and indecision. other bach flower remedies you might try are vervain, which fights tension; vine, to tackle the torments of ambition; and elm, to combat the sensation of being overwhelmed by responsibilities.

   
light therapy
our bodies have their own internal clocks called circadian rhythms, and when we tamper with them by flying across too many time zones or shifting working hours (or spending too much time indoors), they react by pulling the rug of sleep from under our toes.
while natural daylight is still the best therapy for light-deprived sleep disorders, such as jet lag, the sun is not always there when you need it. therefore i often suggest a light visor for my patients whose insomnia is caused by long-distance travel or shift work.

a light visor is fitted with a high-intensity full-spectrum bulb and worn on the head like a tennis visor. unlike its big brother the light box, the visor can be worn around the house while you do other things, and be stowed in a backpack or purse for traveling. many people find that while flying across times using a light visor to read helps to reset the body's biological clock even before the plane lands. (the directions that come with the light visor should clue you in on how to use the device during travel.)

studies also show that light therapy is very effective for those who can't fall asleep at night or who tend to wake up too early in the morning—a typical sleep pattern in older people.

39、Olympus Mons,--------redpassion和nos36提供
a gigantic (about 600 km/375 mi in diameter) shield volcano on Mars, is larger across than the length of the Hawaiian Islands strung together. The Mars Pathfinder Mission of 1997 returned data that Martian volcanic rocks appear to be similar to those found on Earth, including some evidence of the rock andesite. The volcanism on
加一下^^
the Earth's moon, Mars, Mercury, and Venus mostly occurred billions of years ago; these planetary bodies are now cold and dead. However, scientists have found evidence in Martian meteorites that indicates volcanic activity on Mars may have occurred as recent as 150 million years ago.

Mars has the largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons. It is 26 km (16 mi) high (almost twice as high as Earth¡¦s Mount Everest) and covers an area comparable to the state of Arizona. Near it, three other volcanoes almost as large¡XArsia Mons, Pavonis Mons, and Ascraeus Mons¡Xform a line running from southwest to northeast. These four volcanoes are the most noticeable features of a large bulge in the surface of Mars, called Tharsis. Another volcano, Alba Patera, is also part of the Tharsis bulge, but is quite different in appearance. It is probably less than 6 km (4 mi) high, but has a diameter of 1,600 km (1,000 mi). None of Mars¡¦s volcanoes appear to be active.

The Tharsis bulge has had a profound effect on the appearance of the surface of Mars. The Tharsis bulge includes many smaller volcanoes and stress fractures, in addition to the large volcanoes. Its presence affects the weather on Mars and may have changed the climate by changing the rotation of the planet.


40、atom structure-------melody8818提供
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/kids/science/Chemistry/Atoms/Atomic%20Stucture.htm


41、Sunflower,----------nos36提供
common name for annual and perennial herbs of a genus of the family of composite flowers. The genus, which contains about 67 species, is thought to be native to South America originally, although sunflowers are now distributed almost worldwide. Some of the tall-growing forms may attain a height of 3 m (12 ft). The large, solitary blossom, sometimes as large as a meter in diameter, is composed of yellow ray flowers and a central disk of either yellow, brown, or purple flowers, depending on the species. The daily orientation of the flower to the sun is a direct result of differential growth of the stem. A plant-growth regulator, or auxin, accumulates on the shaded side of a plant when conditions of unequal light prevail. Because of this accumulation, the darker side grows faster than the sunlit side. Thus, the stem bends toward the sun.

42、lost waxing方法制作sculpture----------nos36提供
Cire Perdue (French, ¡§lost wax¡§), process of wax casting used in making metal sculpture. A model is coated with wax. The solidified wax is encased in a two-layer mold of plaster or clay. It is then melted or otherwise removed from the mold, and metal is poured into the space where the wax had been. After cooling, the mold is broken to free the metal object. This ancient method is used to produce sculpture, jewelry, and utilitarian products such as dentures.

43、Surface Tension,----------nos36提供
condition existing at the free surface of a liquid, resembling the properties of an elastic skin under tension. The tension is the result of intermolecular forces exerting an unbalanced inward pull on the individual surface molecules; this is reflected in the considerable curvature at those edges where the liquid is in contact with the wall of a vessel. More specifically, the tension is the force per unit length of any straight line on the liquid surface that the surface layers on the opposite sides of the line exert upon each other. See Cohesion.

The tendency of any liquid surface is to become as small as possible as a result of this tension, as in the case of mercury, which forms an almost round ball when a small quantity is placed on a horizontal surface. The near-perfect spherical shape of a soap bubble, which is the result of the distribution of tension on the thin film of soap, is another example of this force; surface tension alone can support a needle placed horizontally on a water surface. See also Capillary Action.

44、微生物,----------davidfish提供
http://forum.chasedream.com/dispbbs.asp?boardID=19&ID=10583

45、Plant adaptation to the desert,---------- guangming 提供http://forum.chasedream.com/dispbbs.asp?boardID=19&ID=11702

46、the code of Hammurabi,----------popcorn提供
http://forum.chasedream.com/dispbbs.asp?boardid=19&id=11754&star=1#80150

47、古希腊三种柱子的详解,----------kanstory提供
http://forum.chasedream.com/dispbbs.asp?boardid=19&id=11765&star=1#80149

48、西方艺术流派,----------redpassion提供
http://forum.chasedream.com/dispbbs.asp?boardid=19&id=11769&star=1#80159

49、Maya Culture--------popcorn提供
The Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica. Originating in the Yucatán around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras. Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya developed astronomy, calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing. The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools. They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rain forest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizeable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater. The Maya were equally skilled as weavers and potters, and cleared routes through jungles and swamps to foster extensive trade networks with distant peoples.
Around 300 B.C., the Maya adopted a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings. This civilization developed into highly structured kingdoms during the Classic period, A.D. 200-900. Their society consisted of many independent states, each with a rural farming community and large urban sites built around ceremonial centres. It started to decline around A.D. 900 when - for reasons which are still largely a mystery - the southern Maya abandoned their cities. When the northern Maya were integrated into the Toltec society by A.D. 1200, the Maya dynasty finally came to a close, although some peripheral centres continued to thrive until the Spanish Conquest in the early sixteenth century.
Maya history can be characterized as cycles of rise and fall: city-states rose in prominence and fell into decline, only to be replaced by others. It could also be described as one of continuity and change, guided by a religion that remains the foundation of their culture. For those who follow the ancient Maya traditions, the belief in the influence of the cosmos on human lives and the necessity of paying homage to the gods through rituals continues to find expression in a modern hybrid Christian-Maya faith.
Cosmology and Religion
The ancient Maya believed in recurring cycles of creation and destruction and thought in terms of eras lasting about 5,200 modern years. The current cycle is believed by the Maya to have begun in either 3114 B.C. or 3113 B.C. of our calendar, and is expected to end in either A.D. 2011 or 2012.
Maya cosmology is not easy to reconstruct from our current knowledge of their civilization. It seems apparent, however, that the Maya believed Earth to be flat and four-cornered. Each corner was located at a cardinal point and had a colour value: red for east, white for north, black for west, and yellow for south. At the centre was the colour green.
Some Maya also believed that the sky was multi-layered and that it was supported at the corners by four gods of immense physical strength called "Bacabs". Other Maya believed that the sky was supported by four trees of different colours and species, with the green ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, at the centre.
Earth in its flat form was thought by the Maya to be the back of a giant crocodile, resting in a pool of water lilies. The crocodile's counterpart in the sky was a double-headed serpent - a concept probably based on the fact that the Maya word for "sky" is similar to the word for "snake". In hieroglyphics, the body of the sky-serpent is marked not only with its own sign of crossed bands, but also those of the Sun, the Moon, Venus and other celestial bodies.
Heaven was believed to have 13 layers, and each layer had its own god. Uppermost was the muan bird, a kind of screech-owl. The Underworld had nine layers, with nine corresponding Lords of the Night. The Underworld was a cold, unhappy place and was believed to be the destination of most Maya after death. Heavenly bodies such as the Sun, the Moon, and Venus, were also thought to pass through the Underworld after they disappeared below the horizon every evening.
Very little is known about the Maya pantheon. The Maya had a bewildering number of gods, with at least 166 named deities. This is partly because each of the gods had many aspects. Some had more than one sex; others could be both young and old; and every god representing a heavenly body had a different Underworld face, which appeared when the god "died" in the evening
The Maya Calendar:
The Maya kept time with a combination of several cycles that meshed together to mark the movement of the sun, moon and Venus. The Maya calendar in its final form probably dates from about the 1st century B.C., and may originate with the Olmec civilization. It is extremely accurate, and the calculations of Maya priests were so precise that their calendar correction is 10,000th of a day more exact than the standard calendar the world uses today.
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex and intricate. They used 20-day months, and had two calendar years: the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab. These two calendars coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a "bundle" and meant the same to the Maya as our century does to us.
The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names. Each of the day names is represented by a god who carries time across the sky, thus marking the passage of night and day. The day names are Imix, Ik, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. Some of these are animal gods, such as Chuen (the dog), and Ahau (the eagle), and archaeologists have pointed out that the Maya sequence of animals can be matched in similar sequence to the lunar zodiacs of many East and Southeast Asian civilizations.
Writing and Hieroglyphics:
The Maya writing system is considered by archaeologists to be the most sophisticated system ever developed in Mesoamerica.
The Maya wrote using 800 individual signs or glyphs, paired in columns that read together from left to right and top to bottom. Maya glyphs represented words or syllables that could be combined to form any word or concept in the Mayan language, including numbers, time periods, royal names, titles, dynastic events, and the names of gods, scribes, sculptors, objects, buildings, places, and food. Hieroglyphic inscriptions were either carved in stone and wood on Maya monuments and architecture, or painted on paper, plaster walls and pottery.
The unit of the Maya writing system is the glyphic cartouche, which is equivalent to the words and sentences of a modern language. Maya cartouches included at least three or four glyphs and as many as fifty. Each cartouche contained various glyphs, as well as prefixes and suffixes. There is no Maya alphabet.
Maya writing is difficult to interpret for a number of reasons. First, glyphs do not represent just sounds or ideas, they can represent both, making it difficult to know how each glyph or cartouche should be read. In addition, many Maya glyphs can have more than one meaning, and many Maya concepts can be written in more than one way. Numbers, for example, can be written with Maya numerical symbols or with the picture of a god associated with that number, or a combination of the two. Some glyphs represent more than one phonetic sound, while also representing an idea. This means that a single idea can be written in many different ways. For example, the name of the Palenque ruler, Pacal, whose name literally means "Hand-shield", appears sometimes as a picture of a hand-shield, sometimes phonetically as pa-cal-la, and at other times as a combination of picture symbols and phonetics.
(http://www.civilization.ca/civil/maya/)

50、霓虹灯--------popcorn提供

A neon light is the sort of light you see used in advertising signs. These signs are made of long, narrow glass tubes, and these tubes are often bent into all sorts of shapes. The tube of a neon light can spell out a word, for example. These tubes emit light in different colors.
The idea behind a neon light is simple. Inside the glass tube there is a gas like neon, argon or krypton at low pressure. At both ends of the tube there are metal electrodes. When you apply a high voltage to the electrodes, the neon gas ionizes, and electrons flow through the gas. These electrons excite the neon atoms and cause them to emit light that we can see. Neon emits red light when energized in this way. Other gases emit other colors.

51、羊皮书制手抄本 --------popcorn提供

公元100年前后,古希腊人将纸莎草纸裁成单页,双面书写,写完后粘成类似今书本型。这 种文献,史称“手抄本”。手抄本翻阅方便,载文量大,具备了现代书的外型,逐渐成为图书的标准形式。
公元前800年左右,中东地区帕加马人,迫于亚历山大城对纸莎草的封锁以及希腊地区两大图书馆的竞争,在公元前2世纪发明了用羊皮、牛皮制成羊皮纸的工艺。 它将绵羊、山羊、羚羊、小牛或其它动物的皮进行加工处理,弄薄后,在其上书写文字。所 形成的古文献,史称“羊皮书”。羊皮书最初是书卷型的,后来演变为书本型。公元前200 年前后,帕加马成为羊皮纸的生产中心,并使该技术向各地传播。尔后羊皮纸的使用风靡罗马。
羊皮纸没有纸莎草那么笨重,而且可以折叠,成为“羊皮书”。公元1世纪,罗马人征服了地中海沿岸,没有建立起更大的图书馆,却建立了最大的档案管“Tabularium”。罗马的诗人可以在羊皮上 “发表”自己的作品,就是请专门的抄写手在羊皮上抄写多份并出售,尽管它在经济上并不合算。 中世纪的欧洲,基督教世界里的修道院开始也使用纸莎草,后来转到使用高级的羊皮纸,而且往往有精美的插图,抄写《圣经》成为修道士的一种职业;在阿拉伯世界里,他们则用羊皮纸抄写《古兰经》。公元4世纪前后,由于羊皮纸 坚固、书写清晰,而逐渐取代纸莎草纸成为制作手抄本的材料。


52、太阳系的行星-----redpassion提供
九大行星通常按以下几个方法分类:

根据组成:
  固态的由石头构成的行星:水星,金星,地球和火星:
  固态行星主要由岩石与金属构成,高密度,自转速度慢,固态表面,没有光环,卫星较少。
  较大的气态行星:木星,土星,天王星和海王星:
  气态行星主要由氢和氦构成,密度低,自转速度快,大气层厚,有光环和很多卫星。
  冥王星。
根据大小:
  小行星:水星,金星,地球,火星和冥王星。
  小行星的直径小于13000公里。
  巨行星:木星,土星,天王星和海王星。
  巨行星的直径大于48000公里。
  水星和冥王星有时被称作次行星(lesser planets)(不要与次级行星(minor planets)--小行星的官方命名--相混乱)。
  巨行星有时被称为气态行星。

根据相对太阳的位置:
  内层行星:水星,金星,地球和火星。
  外层行星:木星,土星,天王星,海王星和冥王星。
  在火星和木星之间的小行星带组成了区别内层行星和外层行星的标志。

根据相对地球的位置:
  地内行星:水星和金星。
  离太阳与地球较近。
  地内行星看起来的如同地球上看有时不完整的月亮。
  地球。
  地外行星:火星到冥王星。
  离太阳与地球较远。
  地外行星看起来通常是完整的,或近乎完整的。

根据历史:
  古典行星:水星,金星,火星,木星和土星。
  史前即以得知
  可用肉眼观测
  现代行星:天王星,海王星,冥王星。
  近现代所发现
  用望远镜观测
  地球

未知点:
  太阳系是怎样起源的?一般来说是由尘粒与气体的星云压缩形成的,但详情很不清楚。
  行星系统如何与其他星系共处?已有了木星般大小的在附近轨道运动的物件的恒星的极好的证据。组成固态行星的条件是什么?看起来地球这样的星体并不是独一无二的,但目前还没有直接证据证明这个或其他。

53、glaciers------江河湖海MM 提供
Glaciers exist where, over a period of years, snow remains after summer's end. They exist in environments of high and low precipitation and in many temperature regimes; they are found on all the continents except Australia and they span the globe from high altitudes in equatorial regions to the polar ice caps. There is a delicate balance between climatic factors that allows snow to remain beyond its season. ...

Scientists and skiers alike can note that within a few days of falling, snowflakes have noticeably begun to change. ... The snowflakes are compressed under the weight of the overlying snowpack. Individual crystal near the melting point have slick liquid edges allowing them to glide along other crystal planes and to readjust the space between them. Where the crystals touch they bond together, squeezing the air between them to the surface or into bubbles. During summer we might see the crystal metamorphosis occur more rapidly because of water percolation between the crystals. By summer's end the result is firn -- a compacted snow with the appearance of wet sugar, but with a hardness that makes it resistant to all but the most dedicated snow shovelers! Several years are usually required for the snow to settle and to season into the substance we call glacier ice. ...

We can best determine the health of a glacier by looking at its mass balance. Each year glaciers yield either a net profit of new snow, a net loss of snow and ice, or their mass may remain in equilibrium. Scientists divide each glacier into upper and lower sections termed the accumulation area, where snowfall exceeds melting during a year; and the ablation area, where melting exceeds snowfall. An equilibrium line, where mass accumulation equals mass loss, separates these areas. You can see it as the boundary between the winter's snow and the older snow or ice surface. Its altitude changes annually with the glacier's mass balance. To find mass balance, scientists measure the area of each region and observe amounts of accumulation and ablation relative to preset stakes. After density measurements are made they may calculate how much water has been added or lost to the glacier. ...

After a series of positive mass balance years, the glacier may respond to the increased thickness by making a glacial advance downvalley. A series of negative years may cause a glacial retreat, meaning that the terminus is melting faster than the ice is moving downvalley. ...

Glaciers have been likened to mighty rivers of ice. Although they move many times more slowly, glaciers have equivalent changes in flow rate and often form falls of fast-moving ice above slow-moving ice pools. Glaciers flow faster down their centers than at ice margins, and more quickly at the surface than at the bed. ...

How fast a glacier moves is mostly dependent on the thickness of the ice, and on the angle of its surface slope. Glacier speeds vary when changes are made in this geometry. They respond to excessively high seasonal snow accumulations by generating bulges of thicker ice that may move downvalley many times faster than the glacier's normal velocity. ...

54、黑洞-----wyxgeorge提供
“黑洞”很容易让人望文生义地想象成一个“大黑窟窿”,其实不然。所谓“黑洞”,就是这样一种天体:它的引力场是如此之强,就连光也不能逃脱出来。

  根据广义相对论,引力场将使时空弯曲。当恒星的体积很大时,它的引力场对时空几乎没什么影响,从恒星表面上某一点发的光可以朝任何方向沿直线射出。而恒星的半径越小,它对周围的时空弯曲作用就越大,朝某些角度发出的光就将沿弯曲空间返回恒星表面。

  等恒星的半径小到一特定值(天文学上叫“史瓦西半径”)时,就连垂直表面发射的光都被捕获了。到这时,恒星就变成了黑洞。说它“黑”,是指它就像宇宙中的无底洞,任何物质一旦掉进去,“似乎”就再不能逃出。实际上黑洞真正是“隐形”的,等一会儿我们会讲到。

  那么,黑洞是怎样形成的呢?其实,跟白矮星和中子星一样,黑洞很可能也是由恒星演化而来的。

  我们曾经比较详细地介绍了白矮星和中子星形成的过程。当一颗恒星衰老时,它的热核反应已经耗尽了中心的燃料(氢),由中心产生的能量已经不多了。这样,它再也没有足够的力量来承担起外壳巨大的重量。所以在外壳的重压之下,核心开始坍缩,直到最后形成体积小、密度大的星体,重新有能力与压力平衡。

  质量小一些的恒星主要演化成白矮星,质量比较大的恒星则有可能形成中子星。而根据科学家的计算,中子星的总质量不能大于三倍太阳的质量。如果超过了这个值,那么将再没有什么力能与自身重力相抗衡了,从而引发另一次大坍缩。

  这次,根据科学家的猜想,物质将不可阻挡地向着中心点进军,直至成为一个体积趋于零、密度趋向无限大的“点”。而当它的半径一旦收缩到一定程度(史瓦西半径),正象我们上面介绍的那样,巨大的引力就使得即使光也无法向外射出,从而切断了恒星与外界的一切联系——“黑洞”诞生了。

  与别的天体相比,黑洞是显得太特殊了。例如,黑洞有“隐身术”,人们无法直接观察到它,连科学家都只能对它内部结构提出各种猜想。那么,黑洞是怎么把自己隐藏起来的呢?答案就是——弯曲的空间。我们都知道,光是沿直线传播的。这是一个最基本的常识。可是根据广义相对论,空间会在引力场作用下弯曲。这时候,光虽然仍然沿任意两点间的最短距离传播,但走的已经不是直线,而是曲线。形象地讲,好像光本来是要走直线的,只不过强大的引力把它拉得偏离了原来的方向。

  在地球上,由于引力场作用很小,这种弯曲是微乎其微的。而在黑洞周围,空间的这种变形非常大。这样,即使是被黑洞挡着的恒星发出的光,虽然有一部分会落入黑洞中消失,可另一部分光线会通过弯曲的空间中绕过黑洞而到达地球。所以,我们可以毫不费力地观察到黑洞背面的星空,就像黑洞不存在一样,这就是黑洞的隐身术。

  更有趣的是,有些恒星不仅是朝着地球发出的光能直接到达地球,它朝其它方向发射的光也可能被附近的黑洞的强引力折射而能到达地球。这样我们不仅能看见这颗恒星的“脸”,还同时看到它的侧面、甚至后背!

  “黑洞”无疑是本世纪最具有挑战性、也最让人激动的天文学说之一。许多科学家正在为揭开它的神秘面纱而辛勤工作着,新的理论也不断地提出。不过,这些当代天体物理学的最新成果不是在这里三言两语能说清楚的。有兴趣的朋友可以去参考专门的论著。

55、Idealism-----wyxgeorge提供

http://forum.chasedream.com/dispbbs.asp?boardID=19&ID=12767




































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