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When is advertising effective and when is it not? This question has often stimulated heated debate between two camps in the world of marketing and advertising (Barry, 1987). According to one view, advertising is effective only if it sells. Thus, advertising effectiveness is assessed by investigating the relationship between advertising expenditures and brand sales (e.g., Little,1979). The other view stresses that advertising can satisfy its ultimate objective of affecting demand only by establishing a hierarchy of intermediate effects in its audience. Thus, an advertising message or campaign may be evaluated against the objective of establishing a hierarchy of effects up to any particular stage, not necessarilythe stage of demand (e.g., Colley, 1961). A compromise position is, of course,that any message or campaign should be evaluated in terms of the entirehierarchy of effects, including sales effects (Urban and Hauser, 1980).
Many hierarchy-of-effectsmodels have been advanced for advertising effectiveness (for an overview, seeBarry, 1987). 相同点:Each model in this paradigm(范例) has assumed a particular sequence of stages that consumers pass through until demand is affected. For instance, Colley's (1961)defining-advertising-goals-for measured- advertising-results (DAGMAR) model assumes a sequence of awareness, comprehension, conviction, and action, whereas McGuire's (1978)information-processing model (IPM)assumes a sequence of presentation, attention, comprehension, yielding, retention, and behavior. Two major criticisms have been raised for such traditional models in the hierarchy-of-effects paradigm. One is that they fail to consider the marketing situation in which an advertising message is transmitted or an advertising campaign is run and, particularly, the consumer audience at which the message or campaign is targeted. According to Ehrenberg's (1974) awareness-trial-reinforcement (ATR) model, for instance, repeated advertising may be effective in three successive stages of consumer behavior, gaining brand awareness, making a trial purchase, or stimulating and sustaining a repeat buying habit if prior experience was satisfactory. Whereas the traditional models present advertising effectiveness as a sequence of responses up to a particular stage in the hierarchy, the ATR model conceives it as a response at a particular stage in the hierarchy depending on the history of consumer behavior. |
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