【阅读】10/15起约杜寂静整理（10.26更新，47篇原始，45篇考古

billyisfragile!

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Review: The Nurse Question
Reviewed Works: American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary by Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian Church, Alice P. Stein;Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 by Susan M. Reverby;A Zeal for Responsibility: The Struggle for Professional Nursing in Victorian England, 1868-1883 by Judith Moore; Angels and Citizens: British Women as Military Nurses, 1854-1914 by Anne Summers; Images of Nurses: Perspectives from History, Art and Literature by Anne Hudson Jones; Nurses' Work, the Sacred and the Profane by Zane Robinson Wolf
Review by: Regina Morantz-Sanchez
The Women's Review of Books
Vol. 6, No. 4 (Jan., 1989), pp. 12-14 (3 pages)
Published by: Old City Publishing, Inc.

第一段：关于护士行业AR 的<ordering of XX>书很有名，AR 的观点是19 世纪的护士改革 和技术发展对护士的地位和概念产生了 dreamatic 的影响，AR 对 the ideology of nurses  profession 进行研究。但是最近的研究反驳了这一观点。在 18 世纪护士被看作女人的工作 主要原因是其自身的"nature"决定 的，并非女人在后来的 rights 运动中获得的。人们都认 为妇女从事nursing 是他们的天性（nature）和义务（duty）。（有题 “natural”是要说明什 么？）由于女性的地位低，导致这个职业的地位也低，工资也低。（有问护士职业地位的， 比较明显易找。）又说女性无论是在家里 相夫教子还是在医院照料病人本质是一样的，段 中列举了原因。（尽管护士这个行当职业化了,ideology of this profession 还是一直没怎么 变。）

Susan Reverby’s Ordered to Care is the most comprehensive historical study among these works. Like its predecessor, Barbara Melosh’s “The Physician’s Hand" (Temple University Press, 1982), Reverby’s book makes great strides toward demonstrating the centrality of nursing history to the concerns of social historians. Reverby skillfully intermingles women’s history, labor history and medical history; she also uses the history of nursing in America to speculate on larger issues about the place of caring in our society — issues of concern to feminist scholars from a variety of disciplines.

According to Reverby, perhaps the most salient fact about the occupation of nursing has been its traditional conceptualization as women’s work, an association which has had a dramatic impact both on the nature of the tasks nurses perform and on the status of the profession. She painstakingly demonstrates how the ideology which came to dominate nursing grew, not out of a belief in women’s rights, but from eighteenth and nineteenth century understandings of womanly character and duty.

Before 1870, nursing took place either in the home, where women nursed their loved ones as an extension of their familial obligations, or in hospitals, which were large, custodial institutions for the dependent poor. Although the quality of care in each of these settings differed enormously — hospital nurses were at the bottom of the paid labor hierarchy and and were occasionally convalescing patients themselves —what both situations had in common was the assumption that women were “naturals” for the job.

Even after 1870, when scientific and medical advances and social and economic changes hastened the development of nursing as skilled paid labor, the ideology of nursing changed very little True, leaders in nursing education committed themselves to the assumptions and language of professionalization: now being a woman was necessary, but not sufficient, for becoming a nurse. But their vision — the establishment of elite training schools to teach the technical and supportive elements of health care no longer attended to by the rapidly specializing physician — never managed to liberate nursing from' its subordinate status within the emerging hierarchy of health care personnel.

It’s not that nursing leaders didn’t try. They advocated an elevated standard of education, controlled by women, which emphasized character training and strict hierarchical discipline. They pictured nursing as a respectable answer to the middle-class dilemma of how to educate daughters. They were pleased to be aided in their efforts by hospital administrators and doctors themselves, who understood that the movement to upgrade and standardize nursing education would support their own plans for reforming medicine.

第三段，AR 同学却认为，这三方的目的不能达成统一（divergent 此处有考题）。比如医院 管理者支 持培训护士，是为了控制更便宜的劳动力的来源，MS 是忽视技术高就要求高薪还 是不听话，反正医院管理者对护士学校有意见。医生支持护士培训，是为了把更多 此类工 作转移给护士，并且凸现医生的地位，但是不允许护士喧宾夺主，护士只能做辅助医生的工 作。而学校设立者的初衷无法实现，失去了对护士学校的控制 权。（意思就是说，改变护 士社会地位和认知的理想没有实现。）

第三段讲医院、医生和另一个什么(简称A)一共三方对护士教育的看法，医生希望护士接受教育能够更好地协助他们，但是认为护士教育不需要教授科学原理，并且护士的角色应该是submissive的，而A则夺取了对护士教育的控制权，决定了教授什么内容以及教育质量等等。

But the goals of the three groups, Reverby argues, were radially divergent. Hospital administrators quickly realized that a training school attached to their own institution could become an endless source of cheap and malleable labor. Doctors saw nursing education as a way of rationalizing care in the hospital, but they opposed any move to bolster nurses’ control of their own labor or improve their scientific skills, arguing that nurses should remain stereotypically submissive, nurturing and self-sacrificing. As hospital exigencies quickly came to dominate the decision-making process in more and more of the training schools, nursing leaders gradually lost control over the quality of education, admission standards and the labor of students on the wards.

In describing these conflicts, Reverby is particularly adept at tracing the delicate interplay of gender and class. As the American labor market grew more and more segmented on the basis of sex, the female occupation of nursing eventually attracted both middle-class and working-class women. But nurses from different classes were tracked toward different and unequal opportunities within the field, leading to conflicting goals and visions among the leadership and the rank and file.

billyisfragile!

JOURNAL ARTICLE
How Ecosystems Respond to Stress: Common properties of arid and aquatic systems
David J. Rapport and Walter G. Whitford
BioScience
Vol. 49, No. 3 (March 1999), pp. 193-203
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences

https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/49/3/193/242486

Nearly all ecosystems are subject to periodic disturbances by natural events, such as flood, fire, drought, and insect infestation (Vogl 1980). When such perturbations are extreme, ecosystems of immense complexity undergo rapid transformation to systems of remarkable simplicity that are characterized by a scarcity of life forms and few or no symbiotic interactions. However, this transformation sets the stage for recovery, which allows the ecosystem to adapt to changing environments (Holling 1986). In healthy systems, therefore, these perturbations are seldom more than a temporary setback, and recovery is generally rapid (Odum 1969). By contrast to natural disturbances, anthropogenic stress is not a revitalizing agent, but a debilitating one. Stressed ecosystems do not recover; rather, further degradation may follow. Indeed, Odum et al. (1979) defined stress as a debilitating agent and perturbation (subsidy) as potentially beneficial.

一种shrub入侵，因为有extensive roots跟native grass抢水资源，导致进一步恶化。哪怕人们后来人工控制shrub，也只是暂时的。

Physical restructuring also occurred as three or more species of shrubs and small trees expanded from  their original, limited habitat and cover to dominate extensive areas of the desert grassland (Hastings and  Turner 1965, Bahre and Shelton 1993).  Shrub establishment contributes directly to changes in landscape hydrology (Martinez-Meza and Whitford 1996). Shrubs also contribute to the demise of grasses through their effects on rainfall distribution and by competition for soil water through their spatially extensive root systems.

问题1：为什么会发生initial invasion。我选的是，因为以前的土地unvegetated；

在这里有个考点就是（After “initial invasion”, the shrub就开始怎么怎么抢水，蔓延，优势等等。。。）问，文中“initial invasion”打引号的原因是什么。应该是个结构题

This lack of recovery of North American desert grasslands suggests  that a self-reinforcing process comes  into play as a consequence of the  initial invasion of the shrubs (Roundy and Biedenbender 1995). With invasion, "resource islands" are created  underneath the shrubs, as discussed  previously, that create conditions for  further desertification by denying nutrients to areas outside the shrub anopy. This effect leads in turn to  bare patches that foster further erosion by wind and water. The shrublands are also well adapted to natural perturbations, further reinforcing  their existence. In experiments in  which creosote bushes were subjected  to complete elimination of summer  rainfall for 5 consecutive years, the  drought-stressed plants not only recovered but produced new growth equivalent to that of unstressed controls within 1 month after a large rain following the removal of the  "rain-out" shelter cover (Whitford  et al. 1995).

In addition, the original desert grasslands were governed by the integrity of the soils that support black grama grasses. Damage to these soils  (compaction and exposure), largely as a result of overgrazing, opened up  unvegetated spaces, which were more  vulnerable to wind and soil erosion,  providing space for invading shrubs. Soil erosion now appears to have led to a positive feedback system that  maintains desertification (Grover and  Musick 1990).

billyisfragile!

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Why Leaves Turn Red: Pigments called anthocyanins probably protect leaves from light damage by direct shielding and by scavenging free radicals
David W. Lee and Kevin S. Gould
American Scientist
Vol. 90, No. 6 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2002), pp. 524-531 (8 pages)
Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society

Many forests, like those spread throughout New England, have just changed color in a spectacular way, as they do each fall. The phenomenon is familiar as well as dramatic, yet why it should happen has been a longstanding enigma. When we were in school, the standard textbooks said that foliage changes color because the breakdown of green chlorophyll molecules unmasks other pigments, like the yellow-to-orange xanthophylls and the red-or-blue anthocyanins, which, we were told, serve no particular function during the autumn senescence of leaves. Now botanists know better.

Indeed, a completely new appreciation for these colorful pigments has developed over the past decade or so, in part from our studies of trees in the Harvard Forest, a nature sanctuary in central Massachusetts maintained for scientific research. There, during September and October, one sees the leaves on dozens of woody species changing color. In some plants, such as the witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), it is indeed the loss of chlorophyll that reveals yellow carotenoid pigments, just as the textbooks say. However, for the forest’s 70 percent of tree species that contain anthocyanin pigments (which produce colors ranging from brown to red, depending on how much chlorophyll the leaves retain), the story is quite different. For example, the brilliant fall foliage of the red oak (Quercus rubra) results from the accumulation of anthocyanin in the vacuoles (large, fluid-filled cavities) of cells lying just under the leaves’ upper epidermis layer.

Anthocyanins are elaborate pigment molecules, widespread among land plants. They account not only for the autumn hues of temperate woodlands, but also for the flushes of developing red foliage seen in tropical forests, on the undersurface of shaded leaves and in crop plants suffering drought or nutrient deficiency. But plants can also have other red pigments. Carotenoids, often rhodoxanthin, produce red color in the senescing leaves of some conifers as well as in the common box (Buxas sempervirens), which decorates many suburban lawns. Betalain pigments color leaves red in a single order of flowering plants, and a few other miscellaneous pigments produce burgundy hues in very rare cases. But of all the red pigments, the anthocyanins are the most widespread.

We have collaborated in studying anthocyanin pigments since 1993 and are beginning to develop some working hypotheses about their function. It’s curious that an understanding has been so long in coming, given the fact these red pigments have been subjected to scientific scrutiny for nearly 200 years.

The Discovery of Anthocyanins

1段：A和落叶边红有管。德国植物学家先提出，A保护秋天的植物的新陈代谢. 但限于当时技术水平，无法证实。后来有人做实验推测A可能吸收UV-B.

Anthocyanins had been observed for centuries as ”colored cell sap.” In 1835 the German botanist Ludwig Marquart gave them their name, deriving anthocyanin from the Greek anthos, meaning flower, and kyanos, meaning blue. Many long-standing misconceptions about anthocyanin function date from these early observations, notably that these pigments arise from the breakdown of chlorophyll during autumn.

Given how striking and attractive red foliage is, it may seem baffling that botanists remained ignorant about the phenomenon for so long. There are various reasons for this. First, because anthocyanins are responsible for the colors of fruits and flowers as well as of leaves, it was natural to concentrate on pigmentation in the former economically important organs, for which the function of anthocyanin seems obvious—to attract animals for pollination and seed dispersal. Second, because the discoveries of Richard Willstatter and his colleagues about the molecular structure of anthocyanins from 1912 to 1916 were made shortly after the rediscovery of Mendel’s laws of inheritance, the anthocyanins became an early subject of research in molecular genetics, rather than physiology. (Mendel’s peas had distinctively colored flowers because of anthocyanins.) Third, the discovery that light can in— duce anthocyanin production inspired molecular biologists to study how light exposure activates genes involved in anthocyanin synthesis, again at the expense of research into anthocyanin function.

Botanists of the late 19th-century, most notably the Germans who studied plant anatomy and physiology, noticed that anthocyanin production rises when a plant is subjected to low temperatures and high light conditions. This observation led to the popular explanations that anthocyanins protect the photosynthetic structures against intense sunlight and help to warm leaves by increasing their rates of metabolism. These scientists lacked the instrumentation and detailed knowledge of photosynthesis to test their ideas. In the mid-20th century, investigators became aware that ultraviolet (UV) radiation could induce anthocyanin synthesis, leading to the hypothesis that anthocyanins protect plant tissues against UV damage. But, as it turns out, anthocyanins absorb rather weakly in the UV-B region of the spectrum (wavelengths of 285—320 nanometers), which is most responsible for damage to biological tissues; other colorless flavonoid pigments that are equally, or more, abundant in the leaves absorb UV-B much more sh'ongly. Furthermore, anthocyanins are most commonly produced in the interiors of leaves and hence are poorly placed to protect leaves from the widespread effects of UV—B. These weaknesses were refuted by one of us (Lee) in 1987. So what good are anthocyanins to a leaf? Two recent discoveries have shed light on the mystery.

高不可攀大博

感谢楼主的整理！辛苦啦！

红豆乱

机经里的考古是什么意思呀？

F1nn

红豆乱 发表于 2018-10-19 14:08
机经里的考古是什么意思呀？

就是以前考过的意思，是旧题

billyisfragile!

https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-09/gsoa-dr091506.php

billyisfragile!

华人移民community（暂无考古）(3)
本月原始
V1（by Eno）最后一篇，超级长的一篇  两屏  讲华人移民美国
第一段讲除了以同样的姓为聚集的clan之外还有一种community叫做。。chuan kuan之类的 拼写可能不对但是长得差不多是这样的一个东西，很像拼音但是不知道怎么念。。这个community是由来自同一个region的移民者组成的，然后后来几个chuan community组成了一个新的组织。。这个组织叫啥我忘了。。这个大的组织有什么什么功能，比如loan agent 什么的。有一道细节题，以下哪个不是这个组织的特点，答案是由姓氏相同的人组成  这个有点混乱，我一时想不起来是问的chuan还是大的，，如果是问的大的，答案就是由来自同一个region的人 组成  大家看仔细一点就可以  就是混淆了另一个组织的特点进来。
第二段讲这个大的组织代表member去跟local政府交涉 blabla  
第三段讲一个minor commuity 同样的culture，语言等等使他们更团结 同时来自不同地方的差异使他们有conflicts ，有一道题问以下哪项正确，我选的是both conflicts and solidity will be influenced by lingustics  
第四段讲这个community有个什么service 大概是充当中间人intermediarie 作者探讨他们的Motivation 是因为归属感。。非常长 记得不清楚了  这里有题问以下哪一项会削弱作者他们的motivation的结论  

billyisfragile!

第一段说在美国的菲律宾移民和中国等其他国家的移民不一样。中国移民都是把姓放在前面，把名字写在后面（补充：说中国移民在入境后都会affiliated them by region, dialect等等，而且会grew 成一个nation identity），这是强烈的national feeling造成的。而菲律宾移民不是；第二段分析原因，菲律宾岛屿众多，比较分散，各地风情、语言都不同，造成整个民族没什么统一性。后面举了个例子，说调查了两组菲律宾移民，一组现任美国士兵，属于生活比较好的，一组是最底层人，尽管这些人现在的生活环境不同，但由于他们来自菲律宾的同一个地方，还是有很多共性的。文章最后又说菲律宾人也比较容易受美国道德观念的影响。（补充：比较的这两组人好像是1675年前入境的；然后又说新入境的菲人虽然....但是他们的背景还很不同，要注意强对比）


题目：新入境的菲人有何character？中国人与菲人的不同？其它的不记得了。

淮南山月

【一点宇宙射线和地球云层的背景知识。。】
宇宙射线在地球云层形成过程中有着重要的作用及影响,其密度的变化情况可以用来解释气候变化情况。近日，丹麦的科学家公布了他们的新发现。

研究人员在最新发表的研究报告中称，宇宙射线密度的变化情况可以用来解释气候变化情况。
“经过努力，我们终于解开了最后一块问题拼图，终于研究发现了空间粒子是如何影响地球气候的，”研究员亨里希·史文斯马克说。
研究人员认为，宇宙射线帮助形成了覆盖地球的云层。
丹麦技术大学的科学家研究发现，太空中的宇宙射线对着地球倾泻而下，增加了地球大气层中的粒子数量，促进了云凝结核的形成及增多。
大气层中的云凝结核数量直接影响着云团的形成，而云团又会对地球气候产生影响。
云凝结核一般是由空气中悬浮的气溶胶、分子团形成的。

气溶胶能够对气候造成影响
雾、霾、尘埃及烟气都是常见的气溶胶。气溶胶是指大气与悬浮在其中的固体和液体微粒共同组成的多相体系。尽管它只是地球大气成分中含量很少的组分，但气溶胶对地圈、生物圈的影响与作用不可低估。气溶胶化学成分复杂，其颗粒物可以作为大气中反应表面或催化剂，以及很多气相物质的接收体。
大气气溶胶负载的化学物质，特别是工业污染物在风系的作用下，可进行几百至几千千米的长距离传输，大气污染影响不分国界和地区，是全球性问题，其对人类生存环境的严重危害已日益加剧。大气输入物质对海洋的生物地球化学循环、大气环境、冰雪化学组成、海底沉积和气候演变等有着重要的影响。从全球变化角度看，大气污染物通过大气的大尺度传输，改变了全球大气化学物质的含量、结构和组成，破坏了全球的辐射平衡，进而可能对全球气候变化造成影响。
到目前为止，科学家认为，最微小的气溶胶并不能形成云凝结核。
但科学家结合实验室试验及理论模型研究发现，离子及气溶胶之间的相互作用能够促进小分子团变成体积较大、重量较重的大分子团，进而也能够形成云凝结核。
“经过努力，我们终于研究发现了空间粒子是如何影响地球气候的，”丹麦技术大学研究员亨里希·史文斯马克在一份新闻稿中说。

超新星爆发是某些恒星在演化接近末期时经历的一种剧烈爆炸。这种爆炸度极其明亮，过程中所突发电磁辐射经常能够照亮其所在的整个星系，并可持续几周至几个月。
“这一研究帮助我们更好地认识和了解，太阳或超新星活动所导致的变化是如何改变地球气候的。”
史文斯马克并不是第一次提出这一见解。在此之前，他就曾经试图将宇宙射线波动及气候变化联系起来，但这一研究受到了严重的质疑。
史文斯马克提出，宇宙射线可以用来解释全球变暖的现象，但有多项研究对这一结论提出了反对意见，同时，也有很多科学家认同史文斯马克的观点，这些科学家认为史文斯马克关于宇宙射线对云团形成存在影响的观点是正确的。

强烈的宇宙射线激烈撞击地球附近的原子
最新研究工作显示，气溶胶及离子之间的电磁相互作用能够促使气溶胶积累粒子。离子能够触发晶核形成，所形成的晶核能够防止分子团蒸发。离子还能够帮助分子团增加质量。模型研究显示，气溶胶增长率在低离子水平条件下仅为5%。但是，当太阳系或银河系附近的超新星放射的宇宙射线进入地球大气层时，离子激发的气溶胶增长率将会跃升至50%。
研究人员在大型云室中对他们的研究模型进行了测试。《自然通讯》杂志于本周发表的研究报告详细展示了研究成果，该研究成果证实了研究人员的理论预测是正确的。
丹麦技术大学的科学家称，宇宙射线能够促进地球大气层低层云团的形成，这种低层云团能够有效阻挡地球表面接收太阳能量，对地球起到降温作用。

太阳活动及太阳表面爆发会对地球造成影响
本次研究报告的作者在此之前就提出，太阳活动变化能够影响进入地球大气层的宇宙射线的强度及密度，进而改变云团形成的速度，并对气候造成影响。
“来自于宇宙空间的离子正在频繁轰击地球、这些粒子被称为银河系宇宙线，”科学家雅各布·史文斯马克于2016年说。“太阳表面的激烈爆发能够扫荡、清除这些宇宙射线，时间可以长达一周。当宇宙射线的强度及密度因太阳爆发的清除作用而出现降低时，地球云层覆盖情况会出现相应的减少，因为地球云层在控制地球温度方面发挥着重要的作用，我们本次的研究成果在气候变化研究方面就具有了重要的意义。”
有一些气候科学家否认快速增高的二氧化碳浓度会对地球气候的长期变化造成影响，他们中的一些人认为，气候变化是宇宙射线波动导致的，持这一观点的研究人员赞同雅各布·史文斯马克及亨里希·史文斯马克的研究成果。
尽管有很多科学家认为，宇宙射线能够影响低层云团的形成，但很少有人认为，该机制能够解释全球变暖现象。
太阳活动及宇宙射线的变化情况是能够预测的，一般都是太阳活动强时则宇宙射线弱，太阳活动弱时则宇宙射线强，如果气候变化确实是受到宇宙射线影响的，那全球温度也应当是升升降降的才对呀！但目前的情况是，地球温度在持续升高。
有两个英国科学家对宇宙射线通量及地球温度变化的相互关联进行了研究，他们发现，太阳活动及其对宇宙射线密度的影响仅在很小程度上决定着地球温度变化的情况。
“经过对20世纪全球变暖的观测及研究，我们认为，太阳活动变化对地球温度变化的影响率不超过10%，”兰卡斯特大学科学家特里·斯隆对《科学美国人》杂志的记者说。
“针对本次及其他研究报告，政府间气候变化问题小组表示，宇宙射线变化与云团变化之间存在关联这一观点目前还没有强有力的证据。”