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The piano was perfected in the early eighteenth century by a harpsichord
maker in Italy (though musicologists point out several previous
instances of the instrument). This instrument was called a piano e
forte (sort and loud), to indicate its dynamic versatility; its strings
were struck by a recoiling hammer with a felt-padded head. The wires
were much heavier in the earlier instruments. A series of mechanical
improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the
introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection
of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced
an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate
harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid,
singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance.

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NOTE:
Musical Instruments
1.The strings (弦乐)
1) plectrum: harp, lute, guitar, mandolin;
2) keyboard: clavichord, harpsichord, piano;
3) bow: violin, viola, cello, double bass.
2. The Wood（木管）-winds : piccolo, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon,
English horn;
3. the brass（铜管）: French horn, trumpet, trombone, cornet, tuba,
bugle, saxophone;
4.the percussion（打击组）: kettle drum, bass drum, snare drum,
castanet, xylophone, celesta, cymbal, tambourine.

jcz2008

25. Movie Music
Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as
“silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word,
silent. From the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensable
accompaniment; when the Lumiere films were shown at the first public
film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were
accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the
music played bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment
of any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time, however, the
incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent,
and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to
the mood of the film.

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As movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and
perhaps a cellist, would be added to the pianist in certain cases, and
in the larger movie theaters small orchestras were formed. For a number
of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in
the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often
the principal qualification for holding such a position was not skill or
taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical
pieces. Since the conductor seldom saw the films until the night before
they were to be shown(if indeed, the conductor was lucky enough to see
them then), the musical arrangement was normally improvised in the
greatest hurry.
To help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the
practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments. In 1909,
for example, the Edison Company began issuing with their films such
indications of mood as “ pleasant”, “sad”, “lively”. The
suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet
containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of music,
and precise directions to show where one piece led into the next.
Certain films had music especially composed for them. The most famous of
these early special scores was that composed and arranged for D.W
Griffith’s film Birth of a Nation, which was released in 1915.

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Note:
美国通俗音乐分类：
1．Jazz;
1) traditional jazz---- a) blues, 代表人物：Billy Holiday
b)ragtime(切分乐曲): 代表人物：Scott
Joplin
c)New Orleans jazz (= Dixieland jazz)
eg: Louis Armstron
d)swing eg: Glenn Miller, Duke
Ellington, etc.
e)bop (=bebop, rebop) eg: Lester Young, Charlie
Parker etc.
2)modern jazz ------ a) cool jazz(=progressive jazz)高雅爵士乐。 Eg:
Kenny G.
b)third-stream jazz. Eg: Charles
Mingus, John Lewis.
c) main stream jazz.
d)avant-garde jazz.
e) soul jazz. Eg: Sarah Vaughn, Ella
Fitzgerald
f) Latin jazz.
2.gospel music 福音音乐， 主要源于Nero spirituals. Eg. Dolly Parker,
Mahalia Jackson
3.Country and Western music. Eg. John Denver, Tammy Wynette, Kenny
Rogers, etc.
4. Rock music-----------a) rock and roll eg: Elvis Prestley(US) , the
Beatles(UK.)
b)folk rock Eg: Bob Dylon, Michael
Jackson, Mariah Carey, Bruce Springsteen, Lionel Riche etc.
c)punk rock
d)acid rock
e)rock jazz eg: M.J. McLaughlin
f) Jurassic rock
5.Music for easy listening (i.e. light music )

jcz2008

26. International Business and Cross-cultural Communication
The increase in international business and in foreign investment has
created a need for executives with knowledge of foreign languages and
skills in cross-cultural communication. Americans, however, have not
been well trained in either area and, consequently, have not enjoyed the
same level of success in negotiation in an international arena as have
their foreign counterparts.
Negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth for the
purpose of reaching an agreement. It involves persuasion and compromise,
but in order to participate in either one, the negotiators must
understand the ways in which people are persuaded and how compromise is
reached within the culture of the negotiation.

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In many international business negotiations abroad, Americans are
perceived as wealthy and impersonal. It often appears to the foreign
negotiator that the American represents a large multi-million-dollar
corporation that can afford to pay the price without bargaining further.
The American negotiator’s role becomes that of an impersonal purveyor
of information and cash.
In studies of American negotiators abroad, several traits have been
identified that may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception,
while undermining the negotiator’s position. Two traits in particular
that cause cross-cultural misunderstanding are directness and impatience
on the part of the American negotiator. Furthermore, American
negotiators often insist on realizing short-term goals. Foreign
negotiators, on the other hand, may value the relationship established
between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in it for long-
term benefits. In order to solidify the relationship, they may opt for
indirect interactions without regard for the time involved in getting to
know the other negotiator.

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27. Scientific Theories
In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that
are related. A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps
scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced. A good
example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases
are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in
constant motion.
A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to
predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has
been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory. If
observations confirm the scientist’s predictions, the theory is
supported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the
scientists must search further. There may be a fault in the experiment,
or the theory may have to be revised or rejected.
Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting
information and performing experiments. Facts by themselves are not
science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said, “Science is
built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection
of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be
called a house.”

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Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other
scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known facts
have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation
that requires considerable imagination. Possible solutions to the
problem are formulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses.
In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the
scientist’s thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans
experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test
hypotheses. Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose and
direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into
theories.

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28.Changing Roles of Public Education
One of the most important social developments that helped to make
possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was the
effect of the baby boom of the 1950's and 1960's on the schools. In the
1920's, but especially in the Depression conditions of the 1930's, the
United States experienced a declining birth rate --- every thousand
women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live children
in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940. With the growing
prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic boom that
followed it young people married and established households earlier and
began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the
Depression. Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand in 1946,106.2 in 1950,
and 118 in 1955. Although economics was probably the most important
determinant, it is not the only explanation for the baby boom. The
increased value placed on the idea of the family also helps to explain
this rise in birth rates. The baby boomers began streaming into the
first grade by the mid 1940's and became a flood by 1950. The public
school system suddenly found itself overtaxed. While the number of
schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar conditions, these
same conditions made the schools even less prepared to cope with the
food. The wartime economy meant that few new schools were built between
1940 and 1945. Moreover, during the war and in the boom times that
followed, large numbers of teachers left their profession for better-
paying jobs elsewhere in the economy.