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jcz2008

Sleep is very ancient. In the electroencephalographic sense we share it
with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds: it may
extend back as far as the reptiles.
There is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and
dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators
are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in turn
much more likely to experience dreamless sleep. In dream sleep, the
animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external
stimuli. Dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed
cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep.
The fact that deep dream sleep is rare among pray today seems clearly to
be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense that today, when
sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less frequently
immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones. But why should they sleep
deeply at all? Why should a state of such deep immobilization ever have
evolved?
Perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be
found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in genera
seem to sleep very little. There is, by and large, no place to hide in
the ocean. Could it be that, rather than increasing an animal’s
vulnerability, the University of Florida and Ray Meddis of London
University have suggested this to be the case. It is conceivable that
animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own initiative are,
during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep.
The point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals.
This is an interesting notion and probably at least partly true.

jcz2008

18.Modern American Universities 胖胖：）
Before the 1850’s, the United States had a number of small colleges,
most of them dating from colonial days. They were small, church
connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral
character of their students.
Throughout Europe, institutions of higher learning had developed,
bearing the ancient name of university. In German university was
concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals.
Between mid-century and the end of the 1800’s, more than nine thousand
young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to
Germany for advanced study. Some of them return to become presidents of
venerable colleges-----Harvard, Yale, Columbia---and transform them into
modern universities. The new presidents broke all ties with the churches
and brought in a new kind of faculty. Professors were hired for their
knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and
had a strong arm for disciplining students. The new principle was that a
university was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this
called for a faculty composed of teacher-scholars. Drilling and learning
by rote were replaced by the German method of lecturing, in which the
professor’s own research was presented in class. Graduate training
leading to the Ph.D., an ancient German degree signifying the highest
level of advanced scholarly attainment, was introduced. With the
establishment of the seminar system, graduate student learned to
question, analyze, and conduct their own research.
At the same time, the new university greatly expanded in size and course
offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted curriculum of
mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music. The president of Harvard
pioneered the elective system, by which students were able to choose
their own course of study. The notion of major fields of study emerged.
The new goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of
the world. Paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new
universities trained men and women to work at its tasks, with
engineering students being the most characteristic of the new regime.
Students were also trained as economists, architects, agriculturalists,
social welfare workers, and teachers.

jcz2008

19.children’s numerical skills
people appear to born to compute. The numerical skills of children
develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an
internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth. Not long
after learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impress
accuracy---one knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs.
Soon they are capable of nothing that they have placed five knives,
spoons and forks on the table and, a bit later, that this amounts to
fifteen pieces of silverware. Having thus mastered addition, they move
on to subtraction. It seems almost reasonable to expect that if a child
were secluded on a desert island at birth and retrieved seven years
later, he or she could enter a second enter a second-grade mathematics
class without any serious problems of intellectual adjustment.
Of course, the truth is not so simple. This century, the work of
cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily
learning on which intellectual progress depends. Children were observed
as they slowly grasped-----or, as the case might be, bumped into-----
concepts that adults take for quantity is unchanged as water pours from
a short glass into a tall thin one. Psychologists have since
demonstrated that young children, asked to count the pencils in a pile,
readily report the number of blue or red pencils, but must be coaxed
into finding the total. Such studies have suggested that the rudiments
of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort. They have also
suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers------the idea of a
oneness,
a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a
prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than
setting a table-----is itself far from innate

jcz2008

The ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of human
actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent
events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and
distant localities as the expression of one intellectual or social
movement; yet the historical process which culminated in the ascent of
Thomas Jefferson to the presidency can be regarded as the outstanding
example not only of the birth of a new way of life but of nationalism as
a new way of life. The American Revolution represents the link between
the seventeenth century, in which modern England became conscious of
itself, and the awakening of modern Europe at the end of the eighteenth
century. It may seem strange that the march of history should have had
to cross the Atlantic Ocean, but only in the North American colonies
could a struggle for civic liberty lead also to the foundation of a new
nation. Here, in the popular rising against a “tyrannical” government,
the fruits were more than the securing of a freer constitution. They
included the growth of a nation born in liberty by the will of the
people, not from the roots of common descent, a geographic entity, or
the ambitions of king or dynasty. With the American nation, for the
first time, a nation was born, not in the dim past of history but before
the eyes of the whole world.

lighting2003

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jcz2008

呵呵，原来是（玩转PC】的版主lighting2003 啊！！！ 祝大家好运！！！！

jcz2008

21 The Origin of Sports
When did sport begin? If sport is, in essence, play, the claim might be
made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have
observed, the beasts play. Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games.
Fishes and birds dance. The apes have simple, pleasurable games.
Frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers
are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with
the universe of animals - past, present, and future. Young animals,
particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh (or
so it seems) to the point of delighted exhaustion. Their play, and ours,
appears to serve no other purpose than to give pleasure to the players,
and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the anguish of life in
earnest.
Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble
part of our basic nature. In their generous conceptions, play harmlessly
and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy, and
imagination into action. Play is release from the tedious battles
against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable,
tragedies of life. This is a grand conception that excites and provokes.
The holders of this view claim that the origins of our highest
accomplishments ---- liturgy, literature, and law ---- can be traced to
a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely enjoyed by young
beasts and children. Our sports, in this rather happy, nonfatalistic
view of human nature, are more splendid creations of the nondatable,
transspecies play impulse.

jcz2008

21 The Origin of Sports
When did sport begin? If sport is, in essence, play, the claim might be
made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have
observed, the beasts play. Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games.
Fishes and birds dance. The apes have simple, pleasurable games.
Frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers
are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with
the universe of animals - past, present, and future. Young animals,
particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh (or
so it seems) to the point of delighted exhaustion. Their play, and ours,
appears to serve no other purpose than to give pleasure to the players,
and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the anguish of life in
earnest.
Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble
part of our basic nature. In their generous conceptions, play harmlessly
and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy, and
imagination into action. Play is release from the tedious battles
against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable,
tragedies of life. This is a grand conception that excites and provokes.
The holders of this view claim that the origins of our highest
accomplishments ---- liturgy, literature, and law ---- can be traced to
a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely enjoyed by young
beasts and children. Our sports, in this rather happy, nonfatalistic
view of human nature, are more splendid creations of the nondatable,
transspecies play impulse.

jcz2008

Although Henry Ford’s name is closely associated with the concept of
mass production, he should receive equal credit for introducing labor
practices as early as 1913 that would be considered advanced even by
today’s standards. Safety measures were improved, and the work day was
reduced to eight hours, compared with the ten-or twelve-hour day common
at the time. In order to accommodate the shorter work day, the entire
factory was converted from two to three shifts.
In addition, sick leaves as well as improved medical care for those
injured on the job were instituted. The Ford Motor Company was one of
the first factories to develop a technical school to train specialized
skilled laborers and an English language school for immigrants. Some
efforts were even made to hire the handicapped and provide jobs for
former convicts.
The most widely acclaimed innovation was the five-dollar-a-day minimum
wage that was offered in order to recruit and retain the best mechanics
and to discourage the growth of labor unions. Ford explained the new
wage policy in terms of efficiency and profit sharing. He also mentioned
the fact that his employees would be able to purchase the automobiles
that they produced - in effect creating a market for the product. In
order to qualify for the minimum wage, an employee had to establish a
decent home and demonstrate good personal habits, including sobriety,
thriftiness, industriousness, and dependability. Although some criticism
was directed at Ford for involving himself too much in the personal
lives of his employees, there can be no doubt that, at a time when
immigrants were being taken advantage of in frightful ways, Henry Ford
was helping many people to establish themselves in America.

jcz2008

The ancestry of the piano can be traced to the early keyboard
instruments of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries --- the spinet, the
dulcimer, and the virginal. In the seventeenth century the organ, the
clavichord, and the harpsichord became the chief instruments of the
keyboard group, a supremacy they maintained until the piano supplanted
them at the end of the eighteenth century. The clavichord’s tone was
metallic and never powerful; nevertheless, because of the variety of
tone possible to it, many composers found the clavichord a sympathetic
instrument for intimate chamber music. The harpsichord with its bright,
vigorous tone was the favorite instrument for supporting the bass of the
small orchestra of the period and for concert use, but the character of
the tone could not be varied save by mechanical or structural devices.