微软百科里关于JIM CROW资料

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这是微软百科里关于JIM CROW资料：

Jim Crow, the system of laws and customs that enforced racial segregation and discrimination throughout the United States, especially the South, from the late 19th century to the 1960s.

African Americans living in the South during the first half of the 20th century saw graphic reminders of their second-class citizenship everywhere. Signs reading "Whites Only" or "Colored" hung over drinking fountains and the doors to restrooms, restaurants, movie theaters, and other public places. Along with segregation, blacks, particularly in the South, faced discrimination in jobs and housing and were often denied their constitutional right to vote. Whether by law or by custom, all these obstacles to equal status went by the name Jim Crow.

Jim Crow was the name of a character in minstrelsy (in which white performers in blackface used African American stereotypes in their songs and dances); it is not clear how the term came to describe American segregation and discrimination. Jim Crow has its origins in a variety of sources, including the Black Codes imposed upon African Americans immediately after the Civil War (1861-1865), and prewar racial segregation of railroad cars in the North. But it was not until after Radical Reconstruction ended in 1877 (see Electoral Commission of 1877) that Jim Crow was born.

Jim Crow grew slowly. In the last two decades of the 19th century, many African Americans still enjoyed the rights granted in the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments, along with the 1875 Civil Rights Act. But, according to historian C. Vann Woodward, by the late 1890s various factors had combined to create an environment in which white supremacy prevailed. These included the reconciliation of warring political factions in the South, the acquiescence of Northern white liberals, and the United States' military conquest of nonwhite peoples in the Philippines, Hawaii, and Cuba.

Some of the earliest Jim Crow legislation came from the transportation industry. New Orleans's 1890 law requiring separate railroad cars for black and white passengers was soon followed by regulations in other cities and states. Such laws, ostensibly written to "protect" both races, were given federal support when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that "separate but equal" accommodations on Louisiana's railroads were constitutional. The ruling led to legalized segregation in education, public parks, and libraries.

Other Jim Crow laws did not specifically mention race but were written and applied in ways that discriminated against African Americans. Literacy tests and poll taxes, administered with informal loopholes and trick questions, barred nearly all African Americans from voting. For example, though more than 130,000 blacks were registered to vote in Louisiana in 1896, only 1342 were on the rolls in 1904.

Disfranchisement was often defended by invoking the mythology of Reconstruction, in which Southern whites claimed that unsophisticated black voters had been manipulated by Northern carpetbaggers who had moved south after the war. Jim Crow proponents also found ammunition in the incendiary propaganda of the Southern white press, which published sensational and exaggerated accounts of crimes committed by African Americans. As Woodward and other historians have pointed out, an atmosphere emerged of racist hysteria, which further fueled lynching, antiblack rioting, and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan. In addition, early-20th-century trends in scholarship, including the pseudoscience of eugenics, lent respectability to the view that blacks were inherently inferior to whites.

Jim Crow extended to deny private as well as public, or civil, rights to African Americans. Businesses routinely refused to serve blacks, and many white homeowners would not rent or sell property to African Americans. A strict, unwritten, code of behavior governed interracial interaction. Under Jim Crow etiquette, African Americans were denied all social forms of respect. Whites addressed even adult black men as "boy," and all blacks were expected to show deference to all whites. The combination of constant personal humiliation, dismal economic opportunities (sharecropping consigned most rural Southern blacks to perpetual poverty), and inferior segregated education for their children prompted thousands of African Americans to leave the South in the Jim Crow era. Waves of exodus culminated in the Great Migration north in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, but many African Americans found conditions in the North little better.

A combination of factors led to the dismantling of Jim Crow starting in the late 1940s. Attention attracted by Gunnar Myrdal's 1944 book An American Dilemma made Jim Crow a national embarrassment. After more than a decade of litigation, the legal work of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NACCP) began to bear fruit. Supreme Court decisions in Sweatt v. Painter (1950) and McLaurin v. Oklahoma (1950) started to break down the "separate but equal" standard set by Plessy and finally outlawed state-sponsored segregation in 1954's Brown v. Board of Education. Violent resistance by some white Southerners was met by a growing Civil Rights Movement that used boycotts, sit-ins, marches, and other forms of nonviolent protest to achieve goals such as passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act. But despite victories against segregation and discrimination, African Americans continued to face unequal opportunities, and new approaches, such as the Black Power Movement, sought to repair the lasting damage of Jim Crow.

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