【阅读】2019/10/31起悅杜整理（11/09更新，42原始，40篇考古）

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Bethedream

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首考一次过！

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billyisfragile!

Real or Fake: Studies in Authentication
Joe Nickell

Chapter 1
Investigating Documents

Just as a talented impersonator can mimic a person’s voice or mannerisms, a skillful forger can convincingly simulate someone else’s handwriting. To uncover such fakery, ancient or modern, the document sleuth must grasp all aspects of writing, including its evolution (see figure 1.1).  The following discussion is not meant to replace more detailed treatises such as Albert S. Osborn’s Questioned Documents (1978) or my own Pen, Ink, & Evidence (1990) and Detecting Forgery (1996a). This introduction to writing materials, handwriting identification, warning signs of forgery, and the detection of nonforgery fakes is intended to acquaint the student with some of the basics.

第一段：先是一个类比，就像人可以模仿mimic声音一样，handwriting也是可以被模仿的。然后提出了两种不同的笔迹，一个是class的，解释说是属于一个group 的， 还有一个是individual的，是personal的。Class characteristic 是可以被模仿的，而indi的不能

Handwriting Identification


第一段：有一种笔记的形成不是个体（individual）自己发展来的，而是由于在于这个人熟悉的东西，例如他周围的人啊，环境啊之类的。这种penmanship（笔迹）叫做classical或者systematic的。。

The individuality of handwriting has been recognized since antiquity. It is the basis for both the pseudoscience of graphology (which supposedly divines personality from handwriting) and the forensic science of handwriting comparison. (For a discussion, see nickell 1992a; 1996a, 17–24.) It is crucial for the investigator to understand that many similarities may exist between two or more handwriting samples simply because their authors learned penmanship from the same writing system or even the same copybooks. Those writing features common to a group sharing the same general penmanship style are called “class characteristics.” In contrast are “individual characteristics,” or variations that evolve in mature handwriting. These individual peculiarities—in combination—will not be exactly duplicated in another’s handwriting (see figure 1.5).

第二段：the most common error made by 检查者是当他们看到他们unfamiliar不熟悉的笔迹的时候，就以为是individual的了，但实际上是class, 因为这样的错误导致很多人被怀疑是forger. 然后to avoid this mistake, 检查者要熟悉各种的handwriting,especially 古代的，他们不熟悉的笔迹。后面应该还有几句话是说什么more familiar with … less probability to make error之类的，具体不记得了，但是最后一句话有考题，就是more…more..less的地方。

第二段：所以在笔迹鉴定家鉴定的时候一定要多多了解这种系统上的笔迹，否则很可能在鉴定的时候混淆罪犯与嫌疑人的笔迹（可能嫌疑人是无罪的），因为可能他们出自一个笔迹系统或者群体。什么办法才能避免呢？没有其他的办法，只有笔迹鉴定家尽其所能把能收集到的系统笔迹全收集到，要都熟悉，才能防止混淆。

第二段说examiners会把文章里他们unfamiliar的内容错误地归为individual charateristic，但它们实际上是class characteristics（有题），然后说为了防止这种错误这些examiners应该去学习了解这些对于他们来说不太熟悉的内容。

Failure to distinguish between class and individual characteristics is the mark of the layperson or rank amateur. Document examiner Ordway Hilton (1982, 160) noted, “The most common error of the unqualified examiner is to describe an unusual characteristic as being individual when in fact it merely belongs to a writing system outside the sphere of his experience.” Such errors have actually resulted in persons being wrongly convicted of forgery and other crimes. To avoid such serious problems, the examiner must become familiar with all the basic styles of penmanship (see figure 1.1), including, if he or she is working with historical documents, antiquated handwriting systems. As a rule, the less familiar one is with a handwriting system, and the more ornate such a system of penmanship is, the more likely one is to mistake class characteristics for individual ones.

billyisfragile!

Lyme disease : the cause, the cure, the controversy
by Barbour, Alan G., M.D

Vaccines

When sources of an infectious disease are unavoidable and when treatment is either nonexistent or only partially effective, we look to that cornerstone of preventive medicine: a vaccine. Malaria is an example. This parasite infection can be prevented by measures that interrupt at one step or another the disease’s transmission by mosquitoes. But now many vectors are resistant to the insecticides that once kept their numbers low. Malaria has been successfully treated with medicines such as quinine. But the malaria parasites themselves are becoming resistant to the effects of these treatments. As the standbys of prevention and treatment reveal vulnerabilities over time, there is keener interest in developing a vaccine to prevent malaria.

P1:   Lyme disease，开发疫苗是个有争议的事情。但是疫苗的副作用不清楚，并且由于这种病rarely fatal (这里注意！JJ是非常FATAL,实际说的是不致命！！！意思反了，后面有题，不理解会选错的！）所以一点点可能的导致患者对副作用tolerance 低；同时，做好的疫苗不见的买的出去（这里没解释原因），举了另一个疫苗rocky mountain feverdisease的例子，某某就是最后那种疫苗卖不出去就停产了（有题问举例作用）

Although malaria’s global scope dwarfs that of Lyme disease, there are parallels between the two diseases which are instructive with respect to vaccines. For many years a vaccine for use in humans was generally thought of as a low-priority item for Lyme disease prevention, and in fact, some experts continue to dispute the proposition that a Lyme disease vaccine is needed. Tick bites were viewed as being avoidable by means of a few simple precautions for outdoor activities. Moreover, the disease was seen by most physicians as easily treated with antibiotics. There was, in addition, little apparent incentive for a company to develop and market a vaccine against the disease. A vaccine for the more frequently fatal tick-borne disease Rocky Mountain spotted fever was taken off the market for the lack of use. Inasmuch as Lyme disease is rarely fatal, the public’s acceptance of side effects or actual illness from a vaccine would be expected to be low. What with the amount of litigation against vaccines for proven killers such as whooping cough and diphtheria, how great would be the “bottom line” for a vaccine against a more benign infection? How tolerant, it was further asked, would people be of untoward reactions to a vaccine against an infection that could easily be avoided to begin with, and that could be treated if acquired?

These are discouraging considerations and doubts. Nevertheless, public and professional demand have grown to the point that efforts to develop a vaccine for humans are now under way on both sides of the Atlantic. One justification is the recognition, over the last decade, that the impact of Lyme disease on the health and quality of life in high-risk areas is considerable. In some communities 10 percent of the population have been infected. There has been only limited success to date in controlling the disease by interrupting transmission to people in these areas. For many suburban residents, exposure to infection is almost impossible to avoid. This is especially true for outdoor workers and residents of communities with many deer and infected ticks around homes. Although many early infections with B. burgdorferi come to a physician’s attention, further experience has shown that infections occur without the rash of erythema migrans having been noticed. In the rash’s absence it is difficult to distinguish Lyme disease from a summer virus infection. In these cases the infection may go untreated during the stage in which treatment is most effective.

People with late infection, like those with the early form of the disease, usually respond to antibiotic therapy, but longer treatments are required. Moreover, some patients with Lyme disease involving the joints or nervous system do not substantially improve even after intravenous antibiotics. The arthritis continues for months to years, or the fatigue and achiness persist long after the antibiotics have been discontinued. Notwithstanding doubts about the accuracy of some diagnoses of chronic Lyme disease, the specter of a large number of persons with unrelieved disabilities has been another factor in the increased interest in a Lyme disease vaccine.