【阅读】2019/07/25起钥渡整理（08/01更新，28篇原始，28篇考古）

billyisfragile!

https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1349785-1-1.html

1. 长阅读是贝多芬的，全文没看懂，直接关键词搜索-- 建议看一看 有个了解 碰到这篇我真的输了...

https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-699776-1-1.html

https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/08/31/taking-liberties-2
Musical Events
August 31, 2009 Issue
Taking Liberties
Reviving the art of classical improvisation.
By Alex Ross

Joshua Bell has created a moody cadenza for the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto.

The conductor Will Crutchfield, who specializes in bel-canto opera and doubles as a musicological detective, recently sat down to compare all extant recordings of “Una furtiva lagrima,” the plaintive tenor aria from Donizetti’s “L’Elisir d’Amore.” Crutchfield wanted to know what singers of various eras have done with the cadenza—the passage at the end of the aria where the orchestra halts and the tenor engages in graceful acrobatics. Donizetti included a cadenza in his score, and later supplied two alternative versions. Early recordings show singers trying out a range of possibilities, some contemplative, some florid, none the same. Then came Enrico Caruso. He first recorded “Una furtiva lagrima” in 1902, and returned to it three more times in the course of his epochal studio career. After that, tenors began replicating the stylish little display that Caruso devised: a quick up-and-down run followed by two slow, sighing phrases. Out of more than two hundred singers who have recorded the aria since Caruso’s death, how many try something different? Crutchfield counts four.

说很多音乐家在他们的乐谱后面都加一段类似freestyle的东西，这样可以给演奏者一个发挥的空间来表达他们自己的感情，后来贝多芬却给那最后一段加上自己notation，所以演奏者都没有自己的发挥空间了，所以之后的音乐都越来越standardized了

P2 关键字:某个很长名字的人 做调查 说C开头的一个SINGER 唱这个CARXX. 有很多人效仿这个SINGER.但是大部分人还是认为C 是TRADITIONAL.

That arresting statistic indicates the degree to which classical performances have been standardized over the past century. Many listeners would identify Caruso’s cadenza as the “traditional” one, but Crutchfield, in a forthcoming essay on changing perceptions of operatic style, calls it the “death-of-tradition” cadenza. As a conductor, Crutchfield is campaigning for a return to spontaneity and idiosyncrasy. Each summer at the Caramoor Festival, in Katonah, New York, he presents two or three works from the golden age of bel canto—Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, and Verdi, with Handel, Gluck, and Mozart also in the mix—and through an extended rehearsal process he pushes singers to cast off the rigid habits that they have been trained to adopt.

“L’Elisir d’Amore” was the first of Crutchfield’s productions this summer. Lawrence Brownlee, a liquidly lyrical young tenor, sang the male lead, and when he arrived at “Una furtiva lagrima”—in which the peasant Nemorino sees a “secret tear” in the eye of his beloved and aches to feel the beating of her heart—the Caruso model fell away. Brownlee delivered most of the first verse as written, and then began singing ornamental figures that Donizetti inserted some years after the opera’s première, in 1832. Brownlee’s cadenza combined one of Donizetti’s notations with a version that Crutchfield found in the papers of Giovanni Mario, a favored singer of the composer. Airier and dreamier than the usual, it generated a subtly different atmosphere. Caruso, famous for his sobbing tone, played up the image of tears, pointedly falling from a tender G-natural to a lachrymose G-flat at the end of his cadenza. Brownlee evoked a brighter kind of yearning, ending on a sweet major-key phrase, and his approach not only revived the old tradition but made more dramatic sense; after all, the central image of the aria is “palpiti,” heartbeats of anticipation, and Nemorino finds fulfillment moments later. The happy result of all this experimentation was to bring the audience deeper into the opera.

有题问贝多芬CZ是怎么样特点的还是什么…（因为贝多芬他不喜欢加这种形式文中好像说他要求演奏时候按照他写的notion还是什么的演奏）所以我就选的好像是他会把自己的作品写固定的notion

The art of embellishment—improvising cadenzas, adding ornaments, taking other opportunities for creativity in performance—is a hot topic in classical music these days. For generations, conservatories preached absolute fidelity to the score: do what the composer wrote and nothing more. The problem is that the scores of prior eras can leave quite a bit to the performer’s imagination, and the earlier the piece the sparser the notation. Modern musicians specializing in the Renaissance and the Baroque have led the way in looking beyond the printed page: the great viol player Jordi Savall improvises heavily in his appearances with Hespèrion XXI, and Richard Egarr, in a new recording of Handel’s organ concertos, responds imaginatively to passages marked “ad libitum.” The notion of adding unwritten material to Classical and Romantic works is more outré, especially in instrumental music, but it is gaining ground. At this summer’s Mostly Mozart Festival, both the pianist Robert Levin and the violinist Joshua Bell presented their own cadenzas, giving spark to what might have been routine events.

关于音乐的，首段说，Cazty（拼的肯定不对，不知道什么意思）会出现在乐章的最后。18世纪开始被各个音乐家应用。莫扎特就很愿意用，但是贝多芬却不愿意用反而使这个kill it（理解是阻碍C的发展）。后面有问贝多芬多C的发展起到什么作用。第三段，一个例子，具体忘记了，是用来支持C的发展的。

p3进一步深化主题,讲了一个神马improvisation.

语文部分有一篇是机经里的，我考前浏览时有看到，是首段有mozart，说他提倡free的演出，之后的Beethoven虽然没有标准化（有题，大意是Beethoven做了什么），但在他的第一部交响曲中就要求按照他的规划表演。第二段有一个某某出现（关于这个某某有题，问提到这个某某有什么用），于是乎古典音乐标准化，ce什么那个单词。第三段就说现在，一个某某提倡improvision的表演。

Cadenzas sprang up in the early eighteenth century, when composers began indicating brief episodes where the performer should play freely, delaying a final cadence. They appeared not only in opera but also in instrumental pieces, especially in the closing sections of concerto movements. Musicians had been embellishing the score for centuries, and perhaps the cadenza was a way of bringing improvisation under control, corralling it. Mozart, as composer and pianist, brought the practice to its peak; one of his contemporaries stated that cadenzas should be dreamlike in their logic, expressing “ordered disorder,” and Mozart’s playing evidently had that quality. (He wrote out cadenzas for many of his concertos, so his performances may not always have been spontaneous.) Beethoven carried on the tradition—the darkly rumbling cadenza that he devised for Mozart’s D-minor Piano Concerto is a fascinating case of one composer meditating on another—but he also helped to kill it. In the first movement of the “Emperor” Concerto, the soloist is told not to make a cadenza but to play “the following”—a fully notated solo. Performers gradually stopped working out their own cadenzas, instead turning to a repertory of written-out versions. Opera singers retained more freedom, especially when it came to interpolating bravura high notes, but they, too, grew more cautious. Improvisation became the province of church organists and avant-gardists, the latter often taking inspiration from jazz.

Classical advocates of the practice believe that it is not only historically valid but intellectually enlivening. For a recent paper in NeuroImage, Aaron Berkowitz and Daniel Ansari studied what happens cognitively when someone improvises; they observed increased activity in two zones of the brain, one connected to decision-making and the other to language. Even if a soloist extemporizes for only a minute, the remainder of the performance may gain something intangible. Levin, the Harvard-based musician who for decades has been the chief guru of classical improvisation, believes that performances need to cultivate risk and surprise. Otherwise, he says, music becomes “gymnastics with the affectation of emotional content”—a phrase that sums up uncomfortably large tracts of modern music-making.

nctty

谢谢整理！！

立志成为小贝壳

感谢月度君！！

C_Jiajun

本月阅读君，太厉害了！

ZZZZZZZZZZS

顶楼主！               

CB123456

感谢分享！               

billyisfragile!

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Invasion of North American Forests by European Phytophagous Insects
Pekka Niemelä and William J. Mattson
BioScience
Vol. 46, No. 10 (Nov., 1996), pp. 741-753
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences
DOI: 10.2307/1312850
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1312850
Page Count: 13

Over the last 500 years, nearly 2000 insects and 2000 weedy plants have invaded North America (Kim and McPheron 1993, Sailer 1983, Stuckey and Barkley  1993). Many of these inadvertent immigrants have become serious agricultural or forest pests (Liebhold  et al. 1995, Wilson and Graham  1983). Kim and McPheron (1993)  calculated that 40% of the major North American insect pests are of exotic origin even though as a group exotic insects constitute just 2% of the insect fauna. For example, Haack and Mattson (1993) discovered that alien, tree-feeding sawflies in North America are more prone to cause outbreaks than are the equivalent native species. Questions about managing these introduced insect species and concern about continued importation of new ones are timely because of the past severe and ever-spreading impacts of introduced insect pests on North American forest ecosystems (Campbell and  Schlarbaum 1994, Liebhold et al. 1995). We have only begun to comprehend the manifold, often insidious effects of alien invaders on the  structure and functioning of the ecological systems (from ecosystems to biomes) in their newly adopted  homes (D'Antonio and Vitousek  1992).

There has been rather substantial, but nonetheless piecemeal, research on general climatic and ecological factors influencing the  invasion success of exotic animals  and plants (Drake et al. 1989, Lodge  1993, Kim and McPheron 1993,  Mooney and Drake 1987, Wilson and Graham 1983). Consequently, no comprehensive theory of invasion ecology has emerged. However,  the developing theory of plant-herbivore interactions has greatly increased our understanding of the role of host plants and host plant  communities in the structuring and  dynamics of forest insects (Price et al. 1991, Strong et al. 1984). We  believe that this knowledge can be  applied to better understand some of the critical ecological factors underpinning the success of immigrant  herbivorous insects. In this article, we argue that ancient, fundamental similarities in forest and faunal composition between North America and Europe predispose the two continents to successful interchange of  their respective herbivores (Gibbs and Wainhouse 1986) but that crucial historical, geological, and climatic differences may explain why European forest insects have been vastly more successful in invading North American forests than the reverse.

The North American-European insect trade imbalance

文章第一段是在介绍北美和欧洲的大陆原来相连，所以有很多trade还是什么的，所以很多东西都差不多，所以人们expect他们的虫子应该也差不多吧。然而后来有人发现，为什么从欧洲迁移到北美去的昆虫比北美迁移到欧洲去的昆虫多（还是少？）（不太记得是存活率高啊还是数量多啊，反正就是一种不对等的关系...）

More than half of the 2000 immigrant insect species in the United States and Canada are of western palearctic origin (i.e., European origin; Sailer 1983, Wheeler and Henry 1992). Of the nearly 400 immigrant species that live on trees and shrubs in North America, 75% are from Europe (Mattson et al. 1994). This high proportion of European-origin insects is explained in part by the high intensity of trade and human dispersal between North America and Europe (Lindroth 1957, Sailer 1983, Wheeler and Henry 1992). The successful interchange of insects between these two areas is not surprising because they are biogeographically similar (Graham 1993, Rohrig and Ulrich 1991). One might expect approximately equivalent immigration in both directions, given the heavy exchange of manufactured goods, plant and animal products, and people for the last 500 years. The flux might even be biased toward greater numbers of North American insects having been transported to Europe because of the longstanding and heavy flow of American raw and manufactured products to Europe. During the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries huge shipments of wood went to western Europe due to wood crises in these countries. Perlin (1989) reported that in 1770 alone, timber and products from more than 31,000 American trees went just to England. At the end of the nineteenth century, the United Kingdom was buying nearly half, and Germany one-quarter, of the total global export of wood; their combined annual wood consumption was 78 x 106 m3 (Zon 1910). At least 20% of these imports came from North America. Likewise, millions of nursery plants were shipped to Europe (Spongberg 1990). In addition, there was enormous Europe-bound World War I and World War II tonnage.

Although there has been widespread establishment in Europe of exotic botanical gardens and forests and woodlands comprising many New World species (Heywood 1989, Spongberg 1990), surveys of North American and European forest entomological literature show that more phytophagous forest insects from Europe have successfully invaded North America (approximately 300) than have invaded Europe from North America (34; Mattson et al. 1994). Of these 34 North American species (17 Homoptera, 15 Hymenoptera, 6 Lepidoptera, 4 Coleoptera, 1 Thysanoptera, and 1 Diptera), most have followed their introduced North American host plants, except for five broadly polyphagous species. The asymmetrical insect exchange between North American and European forests is not unusual: Asymmetry apparently characterizes most if not all biotic interchanges between biogeographic provinces (Lodge 1993,Vermeij 1991). Vermeij (1991) summarized four often cited hypotheses that may explain asymmetric exchange:

* numbers of invaders going in any direction are proportional to the size of conduits for their passage;
* numbers of invaders reflect fundamental differences in the number of species available for dispersal from the donor environment;
* numbers of successful invaders are determined by the wealth of ecological opportunities for them on their arrival; and
* invaders from one donor environment are intrinsically competitively superior to those from the other donor environment

Conclusions

第一个，欧洲很多的tree species都灭绝了（好像说了200种树这个数字，希望能帮到菌菌考古~）但是在北美，树的abundance非常多。

第二篇 North America和European的食草动物（herbivore）因为（三个原因，这里的三个原因只是说它们之间会有immigration并不是第二段的理由的总述）会有相互之间的immigration，但是从欧洲过去北美的远远多过从北美到欧洲的。
第二段解释原因，记得是三个，

To be a successful immigrant herbivorous species is, first and foremost, a function of the ready availability of potential host plants in the new environment. Potential hosts must be sufficiently abundant and closely related taxonomically to ancestral hosts. For these reasons, North America and Europe are particularly predisposed to one another's herbivore invaders. The continents have had similar flora and fauna for millions of years, owing to their similar climates and ancient land bridges. However, North America has more than twice as many species and genera of trees (north of 35" N latitude) than comparable areas of Europe because many shared genera became extinct in Europe just before and during the Pleistocene. Furthermore, the absolute tree abundance per unit area in North America is at least twice that in Europe because Europe has had substantially higher human populations densities since the close of the Pleistocene. Moreover, there are more European weeds in the American landscape than vice versa. These disparities all enabled easier colonization of North America by European insects than the converse, especially for specialized herbivores. Data clearly indicate that North American tree genera that have close relatives in Europe (or other parts of world, as well) have an increased risk of recruiting immigrant European insect herbivores. Nevertheless, insects' adoption of other North American trees remains possible (especially for polyphages, such as gypsy moths and thrips).

Beyond the question of host availability, the herbivore's intrinsic capacities for survival and reproduction in the new environment are crucial. Particularly important may be the innate predisposition for immediately synchronizing with new host plants, entering overwintering conditions soon enough, and breaking dormancy or diapause in a timely manner so as to be consistently in a competitive position for occupation of the new host plants. European insects may have a fortuitous advantage because high latitude-adapted insects are inherently more likely successfully to transfer and to adapt to mid- to low-latitude light and temperature regimes than low latitude-adapted insects are to adjust to high-latitude regimes.

Q1）文中强调one-parent propagate 是为了啥？ 答案：为了说明欧洲insect数量增长的迅速（答案中有populatioin）。有几个答案很类似，容易混淆。

其次，迁徙到美国的这些（欧洲）昆虫都是parent xxx (这个词不记得), 这个feature使得这些昆虫能够很快繁殖and expand.

Long-term survival of an immigrant herbivore ultimately depends on its capacity to reproduce under low population levels. One efficacious breeding system is uniparental propagation (e.g., facultative and obligatory parthenogenesis, and selfing via polygynous inbreeding), which is highly adaptive because it permits small populations to quickly expand and efficiently exploit ephemeral resources. Typically linked to an organism's breeding system is its genetic endowment, which in turn leads to a particular genotype by environmental consequences. For example, obligatory parthenogenesis often is linked to polyploidy and high heterozygosity (facilitated by apomixis), which can confer broad ecological tolerances for coping with new and different living conditions. These traits are more common among European than American phytophagous insects. It is no coincidence that approximately 40% of all insects adventive on American woody plants have parthenogenetic capabilities, four times its estimated representation (11%) among native phytophagous taxa in North America.