【阅读】1015越督整理（1027更新，45篇原始，43篇考古）

冷在衣lzy

gar_bbbbb 发表于 2017-10-21 15:23
这个有可能是35， 我找昨天的构筑确认了：
链接在这，https://forum.chasedream.com/forum.php?mod=viewthr ...

好

evader1412

阅读菌 第19甲烷那一篇，我看了另一个本月原始狗：“还考了二氧化碳火山还有一种PETM的什么物质“，找到的2016年5.19的考古版 应该是这版，现在的那个好像不太对

V1（by 纯粹杜杜）关于地球气候的，讲的是地球某个时期温度骤变，有人给解释1.什么地壳运动之类的引起的然后被推了2说是因为co2多了，co2要么是火山喷要么小星星撞地球，然后都给驳了因为量不够  第二段说ch4海洋里好多，这玩意比co2温室效应强然后给了解释什么的

V2一篇讲为什么地球上有过一次温度升高 3个解释 一个说火山喷发二氧化碳多 一个说methane在海里面一一个什么形式存在的比较多 还有一个忘记了 最后发现methane的释放是可以解释一切可能的 那两种都不行

V3 (by jingyang1986) 地球有段时间40million yrs的时候温度突然上升 PETM   Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum

很简单的两段。第一段说大部分MODEL都认为CO2排放多了造成的气温上升， 包括什么火山爆发， 彗星撞击，海底运动之类的，但是又一一推翻了。

第二段说CO2不可能，如果可能的话，为什么这些变动的因素很长时间都是稳定的，气温也上升了一点点几乎没有变。现在这些因为也还是没有太大变化，怎么就突然温度上升了。然后最后说他们发现是因为甲烷methane,说甲烷的温室效应比CO2更强，然后说了个忘了什么变化确实有很多甲烷短时间产生。然后好像以后研究方向就不在一直纠结CO2了

问了主旨题，infer 题

V4(by 1691898811)第二篇 p1是讲温度上升 不是因为co2不是因为海洋current更不是因为comet 因为ptm没有明显变化 p2说是因为methane因为那个时候methane由于balabala突然大量增加然后指标就一路飙升

V5（by sunh0003 670） PETM 是一个什么max temperature. 这篇是在讲说科学家想要发现为什么可以会有这种temperature出现。一个假说是ocean current, but the ocean current can't make such high temperature increase and dramatic ocean chemical change. another explanation is volcano activity, but they did not see any evidence of volcano activity. then they think it might be coming from the comet since when there is a collision between comet and earth, there will be significant increase of CO2 level. however, there is still no evidence show any comet collision. highlight " in any event", if there is any CO2 increase, 证据会显示这里的CO2 含量过高 （有题问这里的in any event是什么意思） P2写说那到底是什么原因呢？结果是因为海底的methane, 后面解释了以下methan是怎么造成这个现象的。



悦读菌考古版
　V1：BY uclasdsu

　　另一个是CO2导致4000万年前地球变冷，是因为与水生成H2CO3, 腐蚀岩石。

　　对理科背景的，都很简单

　　V2: 还有一篇说什么地球变暖。。。。第一段先说什么一个假说，说是因为地壳运动。和板块移动什么的。。(太扯淡了)

　　第二段又说了另外一种假说，说是天上什么的下来，下来之后不马上回天上。。又去了海里。。。。

　　真心忘了，记得不好，待补充。。。。免得误导大家。。。。。但我遇到的题基本都是第二段的。。。。

　　挺长的。。。。不过难度一般。。。

gar_bbbbb

冷在衣lzy 发表于 2017-10-21 19:58
好

谢谢阅读菌！

tsaimenghung

關於第35篇 黑人
我好像有印象看過不知道是其他狗還是原文pp或是gwd
關鍵字在紐約黑人還有法案通過造成更多人blabla沒錯
個人看起來和閱讀茵找的不太像

不敢100%確定 但是真的有印象

gar_bbbbb

阅读菌昨天有个小伙伴放了这个狗：
长文章，讲佛教起源

第一段讲学者怀疑除了3个传统的佛教中心，还有一个新的，并且书写的文字已经不再使用了（有题）。
第二段讲只有一个manuscript能够证明这个假设，但是学者们仍然坚持这个想法。
第三段说最新发现了一批手稿，能够证明这个假设，并且这些手稿上面有copied字样，证明它们是替代抄录了更早的文献，早在公元一世纪僧侣有有详尽的保管经文的library系统了
https://forum.chasedream.com/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=1307917&page=1#pid23672025

考古，已经找他确认啦。
语言与佛教文献*
一、文章思路 提出假说——假说在这几年的研究——证据的情况——假说成立  
P1. 开头段：Through some stunningfinds over the last decade, researchers studying early Buddhist manuscriptshere at the University of Washington and at the British Library are confirminga longstanding hypothesis that an ancient tradition of Buddhist literature existedin Gandhari, a dialect of Prakrit, an early Indic language that developed fromSanskrit. They are confident that that canon may soon take its place next tothe four other great traditions of Buddhist texts: the living traditions ofPali, Chinese, and Tibetan, and the ancient, fragmentary one of Sanskrit. 通过十几年间令人震惊的发现，华盛顿大学和大英图书馆研究早期佛教书稿的研究人员证实了一个长期存在的假说，古代传统佛教文献使用梵文中的一种古代方言Gandhari。研究人员对于这种经文会很快与其他四种其他佛教文献齐名展现出了自信：这四种文献包括传统的Pali语，中文和藏文以及古老的残存的一种梵文。
P2. Although no othersubstantial Gandhari manuscript had come to light, Mr. Salomon was among ahandful of researchers who studied the language, from the Brough edition, fromsecular documents in a related language, and from inscriptions on pots, coins,and archaeological ruins. Mr.Salomon specialized in those arcane inscriptions,which are in Kharosthi, a script based on the Aramaic alphabet. 尽管没有其他的实质性的Gandhari书稿重见天日，Mr.Salomon 是屈指可数的几位研究这种语言的学者，研究材料来源于Brough的版本、现世的一种相关语言的文件以及罐子钱币和考古遗迹中的文字。Mr. Salomon 专攻这些难解的文字，这些叫做Kharosthi的文字是基于Aramaic 字母所创造的。  
P3. In 1994, an anonymousdonor had given the library 29 fragile and fragments of manuscript onbirch-barkrolls. “Paper and vellum are like cast iron by comparison,” says Mr.Shaw. “Thesheer fact that any kinds of manuscripts on this material havesurvived is amiracle.” 在1994年的时候，一个匿名捐赠者赠送给大英图书馆29个写在桦树皮上的书稿碎片。“相比而言，使用纸和牛皮纸的书稿更像是铁，容易保存”Mr. Shaw说，“而这个在桦树皮上的不容置疑的证据能够保留到今天简直是一个奇迹”  
P4. Gandhara was the seatof a series of powerful dynasties from the third century BC to the fourthcentury AD. Well-known from abundant archaeological remains, it was acrossroads of cultural influences from India, the West, China, and East Asia,and a melting pot of Greeks, descendants of Scythian invaders from the North,and many others. Archaeological remains and other evidence show that it wasalso an important center of Buddhism. Gandhara是处于公元前三世纪到公园四世纪时期的一个强大的王朝。以大量的考古学遗留
出名，Gandhana是印度，西方，中国和东亚，以及来自北方的古希腊侵略者和其他文化的交汇点。考古学遗留和其他证据表明，这个地方也是一个重要的佛教文化中心 Interlinear notations such as “copied”indicate thatthe manuscripts were discarded ones that had been replaced byfreshly madeones.Apparently, says Mr. Salomon, the monasterieshadwell-organized scriptoriums and large libraries even at that early stage. 写在行间的符号，比如“copied”，表明这个书稿曾经被丢弃并被一个新制作的文献给代替了。显然，Mr. Salomon说，这些修道院即使在那么早的年代也合理的建立了写字间和大型图书馆  P5. 结尾段：That leads him and hiscolleagues to believe that the texts have enormoussignificance because theysupport the “Gandhari hypothesis” that Mr. Brough andsome other scholars longago proposed: that some early Chinese translations ofBuddhist texts wereprepared from Gandhari rather than Sanskrit originals. 这些让Mr. Salomon和他的同事们相信这些文字有重要的作用因为他们支持了Mr. Brough和其他学者在多年以前提出来的”Gandhari 假说”：一些早期的中文佛教文献翻译相比于说是从Sanskrit翻译过来的不如说是从Gandhari翻译而来。  
二、题目
Q1. 那个crossroads那句好像是infer了?  
Q2. 为什么提到G这个地方是当时的交通文化枢纽? 【备选答案】说明佛教受到了中国和西方的影响  
Q3. 针对匿名人士的捐赠考了一道题  
Q4. highlight copied，问为什么要打引号的作用? 【备选答案】the manuscripts werediscarded ones that had been replaced byfreshly made ones 【备选答案】Gandhari的佛经是中国古代的佛经翻译过去的（其实是中文的是从G语言翻译过来的，反了） 【备选答案】G语言的佛经是已经作废的佛经的替代品新版本（其实是G语言的已作废了，也反了）  
Q5. The way that Buddhisttradition was transmitted. "Oral transmission had been the preferred ornormal way -- memorization, recitation, and so forth,"这句话有考题  
Q6. What can be inferredfrom interliner notations？ 【备选答案】这个地方当时应该有大量的手稿复制品之类   
43.**佛教manuscript
V1：
1p: 佛教 manuscript new finds inB 这个地方让B成为了第五个发现原始佛教文献得地方 （好像没有出题）
2p: 主要support了b这个地方出现文献的可能性。 说b是很多中国和印度的cross boarder，几千年前很多文化交流从这里经过，所以文献的出现是非常有可能的。 考古学家们正在研究文献的这种language,包括研究这种language在coin上的印记 （这里出题了，问哪个关于这个language是正确的，我选的： 这个language现在没有人用和说了）
3p: interlinear notationof "copied" 的意思是说这个文献是一个被遗弃的文献，有一个replacemeng of 这个被遗弃文献， 这种被遗弃并且replace的现象表明那个地方和年代就已经有了library system。 也说明中国的很多佛教文献可能是在这里翻译的。 （出题了，问interlinear notationinfer了什么， 我选的：表明了有library system那个选项，有一个选项是说infer了这是个被replace过的，我觉得是干扰选项，因为interlinear notation的意思是被replaced过的，但是infer出了有library system，求考证）   
V2：
佛教经典的那个，只记得一个高亮题亮了“interline notation”问这个暗示什么，没有哪一个看起来特别对我就随便选了一个，貌似选了有notation所指的标记的manu都有large collection；但有个迷惑选项（我觉得是迷惑选项哈）是“出现这个notation所指的标记是permanent replacement of temporary manuscripts”，刚好和实际所指的相反。   
考古： Through some stunningfinds over the last decade,researchers studying early Buddhist manuscripts hereat the University ofWashington and at the British Library are confirming alongstanding hypothesisthat an ancient tradition of Buddhistliterature existedin Gandhari, a dialect of Prakrit, an early Indic languagethat developed fromSanskrit. They are confident that that canon may soon takeits place next to thefour other great traditions of Buddhist texts: the livingtraditions of Pali,Chinese, and Tibetan, and the ancient, fragmentary one of Sanskrit. 考试的阅读第一段就是这一段，一字不差，当时觉得句子太长了。只意会了一下，似乎就是说一种未被认可的、证据不够充分的，literature和世界其他四大传统应该同等重要，所以就可以知道阅读的topic肯定是an ancient tradition ofBuddhist literature。  
The Gandhari canon may prove to be acrucial link in understanding the way Buddhism moved northward along the SilkRoad, into Central and East Asia, even as it largely died out in India, whereit was born in the fifth or fourth century BC. "We’re putting thislanguage on the map of major languages of the ancient world, which it reallywas," says Richard G. Salomon, a professor of Asian languages and Sanskrithere, and the director of the British Library-University of Washington EarlyBuddhist Manuscripts Project. 这一段不太有印象考试里有没有完整出现，但是还是可以很清楚的看到文章的主线就是在讲一系列关于这个language的存在过的证据的找寻以及其重要性的探讨。  
Although no other substantial Gandhari manuscripthad come to light, Mr. Salomon
was among a handful of researchers who studied the language, from the Broughedition, from secular documents in a related language, and from inscriptions onpots, coins, and archaeological ruins. Mr.Salomon specialized in those arcaneinscriptions, which are in Kharosthi, adscript based on the Aramaic alphabet. 个人觉得这一段其实也没有太重要，同样意会，就是说在这个阶段证据依然不充分，但是这群researchers还是在很努力的研究，从其他的相关语言中寻找证据，从一些文物如壶、硬币、废墟里面寻找这种language(或者说traditional literature存在过的证据)。  
In 1994,ananonymous donor had given thelibrary 29 fragile and fragments of manuscript on birch-bark rolls. "Paperand vellum are like cast iron by comparison," says Mr. Shaw. "Thesheer fact that any kinds of manuscripts on this material have survived is amiracle." 对应这段话后文似乎在一道题有专门考，不太记得了。只是很清楚的记得“匿名人士的捐赠”，反正要麼是针对这段话专门考了一道题，要麼就是这段话成为了某道题的一个选项。  
One such find -- eight small, contiguousfragments, making a piece about the size of a page from a standard paperback,from a large commentary on the benefits of meditation -- has just been acquiredby the University of Washington Libraries, while the other manuscripts are at theBritish Library. Because the documents are so fragile, the Washingtonresearchers study digital and photographic images of them. Interlinearnotations such as "copied" indicate that the manuscripts werediscarded ones that had been replaced by freshly made ones. Apparently, saysMr. Salomon, the monasteries had well-organized scriptoriums and largelibraries even at that early stage. 我碰到的考题当中有一道是吧copied这个单词highlight了。然后问这个词为什麼要打引号。找到这篇文章就更好了，因为考试中的阅读题把这一段换了个形式表达，虽然也用引号强调了copied这个单词，但是并没有后面的indicate.而题目就是问“这个高亮的copied indicate了什麼？”找到原文的各位你们比我幸福太多，我是自己绞尽脑汁联系被改的体无完肤的上下文才选出“the manuscripts were discarded ones thathad been replaced by freshly made ones”，如果考试碰到这道infer题一定一定不要大错啦！送分的噢！  
Wonderful, agrees Mr. Shaw of the BritishLibrary, because the writings in the new manuscripts are proving to be closerto those in Chinese Buddhist versions than to those in the Pali canon, whichhas generally been regarded as the standard. "There were obviously variousBuddhist canons circulating in early days in different dialects," he says.The manuscripts also throw light on the way that Buddhist tradition wastransmitted. "Oral transmission had been the preferred or normal way --memorization, recitation, and so forth," says Mr. Salomon. "Whatwe're now finding out is that, in the first and second century AD, the notionof writing things down took off in a big way."  这一段也不太有印象……=______=原谅我！但是记得有一道题目的选项里是我加粗的这段话“口头传播是更加普遍的方式”，题目不记得了。。。只记得选项有一个是这个。   

V1 BY peacefuljoy 740 文章很长，说什么佛经的事情，快2屏的样子。Buddha …第一段说，考古学家最新发现一种G语言写的佛经，G语言是derived from LI language的一种语言，这一发现有很大意义，考古学家认为这份佛经可以take place next to 4种其他语言的佛经——藏语、汉语、什么语，和什么语。第二段说，考古学家分析这份G佛经位处印度和中国的地带（Crossland），所以…第三段说，英国一家博物馆收到一份匿名的捐赠，是一份G语言的佛经.历史很久，可以追溯到公元1世纪.材质非常fragile, 比paper还不容易保存，所以保存下来很不容易第四段说，捐赠的佛经上面印着“copied”的notation，说明这些是discarded的版本，说明当时的library很科学的保管这些东西。
题目有：
1.  G佛经位于crossland，说明什么？
2． 带着”copied”的notation说明什么？
3． G语言是种什么语言？  
V2 BY 大马oz说有一种语言，好像是M开头的词，被发现是继中文，日文，藏文还有一个什么文字之外，记载佛经的语言，发现了佛经的碎片，云云。最后一段说由于发现了佛经里面有一个符号还是什么，代表了copy的意思。因此推断出曾经存在过用此文字记载的大量佛经的图书馆，有人管理，损坏的会用copy补充。
问题1：文章可以推论出什么，我选了M文字是和中文日文藏文等很不相同的文字。
问题2：有问最后一段能推出什么，LZ选了曾经有这样文字记载的佛经的collection。
问题3：中间一段有提到一个城市，说这个城市有literature中心的作用。问提到这个城市是为什么。忘记选项了。  
V3 BY chickenrun0407 文章讲佛教的一个分支貌似是。。有越来越多的evidence that有一个以前不被科学家们注意的分支是存在的，而且地位可以和已知的四大什么并列。= =   接下来按时间顺序写了一些例证。其中一个印象深一点的是1世纪A.D，在一个地方有一个重要发现。后面有一个题说为什么文中提到某地古时候是几个文明的交通的交点，我选的是表明该地很可能会有关于这个佛教分支的发现。   最后一段末尾提到了中国。。。具体记不清了。。。   
V4 BY 思思小 我觉得这篇文章讲的是： 第一段：研究人员发现了一堆新的finding，然后他们很有信心认为，G（GA什么的一个词）是一种indic language, 是佛教的transcript的一只，还有其他四个，中国，西藏，神马，还有S的一部分。（我真的不太理解。。） 第二段：开始说科学研究发现了叉叉神马神马。。没懂 第三段： 发现了一些G的fragment还是它的copy，科学家鉴定，发现它们能追溯到1A.D，这使得它成为最早的记录语言的还是神马的玩意。科学家还发现，即使在很早以前寺院的僧侣就有a large collection ofmanuscripts了...这支持了一个假说：translation of Chineseare prepared from G rather than from S.  
Q1. 这篇文章再讲什么 选项有：1. 新的finding 表明了G和其他s, t, c的内在关系。 2. 新的finding 表明了 G和S和chinese的一些联系。 3.4.5忘记了。。  
Q2. 第三段的第一句话suggest了什么。
Q3. 作者举了一个例子（在第二段）说明crossroad culture，旨在说明什么。  
版本1）4段超长又难，damn it，讲一帮科学家发现了一个印度那边的佛教手稿，第1、2段说这个发现有点重要，因为以前发现的手稿都不是这种语言的，而且这个语言的手稿是最早的佛教手稿，其他版本都是其他语言翻译的，然后说科学家门其实早就怀疑应该有这样的手稿，因为这个地方是好几个文化交界的地方。还说以前科学家就想研究这种手稿上的语言，但资料比较少。 第3段说一个科学家研究一个极其破的手稿，破得碰几下就碎了那种，科学家很吃惊这个手稿竟然能存留下来，因为应该早就烂了啊…… 第4段说这个手稿上有几个字是copied的意思，古代的僧人写这个是为了把旧的手稿换下来，那么就证明了古代这些僧人就很系统的保存手稿，还有图书馆系统。   
版本２）还有一道是佛经的发掘，以前都认为佛经是中文，还有其他几种文字写的。但学者们一直认为有一种XX语言也是用来写佛经的。但是之前的evidence不足，只有一部用该语言写的佛经被发觉，而且年代还比较近，18xx年的。后来British Library收到匿名人的赠送，送了29卷用XX语言写的，而且是写在树皮上的佛经，学者鉴定是1 AD是的作品。这个证据让XX语言成为既中文和另外几种语言之外又一佛经语言。（XX语是另外那几种语言的一个分之还是什么的，那个语言是S开头，古语言）。最后一段，在那29卷佛经中多处有notation（笔记）提到copies这个词。这说明这些佛经很可能都只是写copies，新的copies出现后，就把旧的扔了。由此可见在当时，就肯定有诸如图书馆之类的机构在管理这些佛经。 问题都是推断题。有一题还记得，我选的是在这些图书馆中应该还有更多想这29卷一样的佛经。另外有问题关于那几种语言的。  
版本3）先一段概述，如果发现G，那么G就会成为仅次于四大文明古国的一个重要文化发源地；第二段，以前的一些研究，由于G的位置是各个文化汇集交流的地方，所以应该有这样的手稿第三段，有个学者获得了某个人捐赠的手稿，很惊讶这些手稿虽然是用比纸更不易保存的东西写的，但仍然保存了下来；第四段，通过研究Interlinear notion “copied”，推测这个手稿应该是被废弃的，僧人们应该有个图书馆来保存这些东西，最后一句：这些发现证实了一些hypothesis: Chinese 佛教应该是来源于G而非S。问：这个G语言是怎样的一种状况？what does Interlinearnotion “copied” imply?  
版本4）07年2月整理的如下：7. 还一篇有关佛教文化的，说最新考古发现一个新的manuscript，因此证实另一种语言的存在，可以和chinese等其它4种已知文字并存。2，3段都是进一步讲这一发现的。4段举例说有消息证明这新的语言正是由中国传过去的。56. 一篇以前JJ-有关佛教文化的，说最新考古发现一个新的manuscript，因此证实另一种语言的存在，可以和chinese等其它4种已知文字并存。2，3段都是进一步讲这一发现的。4段举例说有消息证明这新的语言正是由中国传过去的。 但是我做的时候并非是4段举例说有消息证明这新的语言正是由中国传过去的，而是说中国的佛教书籍版本正是从那种语言的版本来的60. A国佛教文化越来越得到重视一参考答案选项A国的某个文献是最早的，不是由B国的原文翻译得来的一参考答案选项某个A国的文献对考古学家提供了很多研究资料69. 佛教那题。真后悔昨天没把CD上的那篇文章自己分析下，自己做的感觉超烂。只能告诉大家题目是问了什么了。A．问 作者告诉你G坐落在N多国家的中心有什么意图？ 我选了个什么body.什么的B．问关于manuscript什么是对的。 我选了个要减少物理接触C．问关于G什么是对的。忘记了。D，问最后一段能得出什么结论。忘记了。总之这个文章好难。我基本乱猜的。而且还出现在10-20题这个范围里。郁闷  

148.佛教 注意有有一题问“佛经字里行间标注的copy字样”能说明啥问题。选项非常迷惑，一个选项讲Gandhari的佛经是中国古代的佛经翻译过去的（原文讲的是 中国的佛经从那里传过来的），不能选。还有一个选项是“那些佛经是已经作废的佛经的替代品新版本”（原文讲的是这些佛经就是已经作废的版本），也不能选。 应该选“那些和尚(还是寺庙?)有大量的佛经”还有一题问保管某一批manuscript的考古学家应该注意什么，应该选避免physical contact还有一题问在这个Gandhari在几个国家中间，代表什么含义，我忘了。答案要从原文找(第二段)171. 佛教，大家一定要看看关于CD上名为“佛教文化”单独的背景资料，加强一点印象。内容和其它人说得差不多
题目比较绕:
1) 问G坐落在几个地区的交界处暗示了什么，不记得选啥了
2) 问科学家在对待manuscript应该怎么样？我也选了减少物理接触  
3) 问文中最后一段“… copy”暗示什么，比较绕。
题目 １．文化交界那里有题，具体是什么我忘了，不过就在下文很容易找的。
２．问题都是推断题。有一题还记得，我选的是在这些图书馆中应该还有更多想这29卷一样的佛经。
３．另外有问题关于那几种语言的。
4．What does Interlinearnotion “copied” imply? 这题应该和问题2一样
5．问 作者告诉你G坐落在N多国家的中心有什么意图？ 我选了个什么body.什么的。这题应该和第1题一样，谈文化交界处
6．问关于manuscript什么是对的。 我选了个要减少物理接触。
7．还有一题问在这个Gandhari在几个国家中间，代表什么含义，我忘了。答案要从原文找(第二段)。这题应该和第1，5题一样，文化交界处一样
8. D，问最后一段能得出什么结论。忘记了。
9. 问文中最后一段问“佛经字里行间标注的copy字样”能说明啥问题，应该选“那些和尚(还是寺庙?)有大量的佛经”。这题和题目2说的类似，和版本1作者提到的图书管理系统也类似。
10. 还有一题问保管某一批manuscript的考古学家应该注意什么，应该选避免physical contact。同题目6１１．有道题目问可以infer什么，如果没有理解错的话，文中提到这个maniscript比paper还脆弱，我选了一个要少phsical touch的选项，好像是C，同６和   据说下面是出题的原文, 仅做参考http://forum.chasedream.com/disp ... =182539&skin=0A  LostBuddhist Literary Tradition Is Found By PETER MONAGHAN  In certaincliffhangers on late-night television, dashing and strangely underdressedarchaeologists in faraway places unearth artifacts of uncertain provenance. Thediscoveries cast new light on an ancient civilization. In reality,archaeologists are less swashbuckling, but once in a great while they do turnup objects -- ancient manuscripts, say, inscribed in little-known languages --that have that effect.Through some stunning finds over the last decade,researchers studying early Buddhist manuscripts here at the University ofWashington and at the British
Library are confirming a longstanding hypothesis that an ancient tradition ofBuddhist literature existed in Gandhari, a dialect of Prakrit, an early Indiclanguage that developed from Sanskrit. They are confident that that canon maysoon take its place next to the four other great traditions of Buddhist texts:the living traditions of Pali, Chinese, and Tibetan, and the ancient,fragmentary one of Sanskrit. The Gandhari canon may prove to be a crucial linkin understanding the way Buddhism moved northward along the Silk Road, intoCentral and East Asia, even as it largely died out in India, where it was bornin the fifth or fourth century BC. "We're putting this language on the mapof major languages of the ancient world, which it really was," saysRichard G. Salomon, a professor of Asian languages and Sanskrit here, and thedirector of the British Library-University of Washington Early BuddhistManuscripts Project. Mr. Salomon is in charge of reconstructing, decoding, andpublishing a collection of manuscripts of a kind that he and his colleaguesfeared they would never live to see. Until recently, concrete evidence of theGandhari tradition consisted of a single manuscript, discovered in 1892 andpublished 70 years later as The Gandhari Dharmapada (Oxford University Press),edited by the late University of Cambridge scholar, John Brough. Specialistsknew that other manuscripts existed. In the 1830s, for example, one Frencharchaeologist wrote of finding some, "but when they touched them, theyliterally crumbled in their hands," says Graham W. Shaw, the director ofthe British Library's Oriental and India Office Collections. Although no othersubstantial Gandhari manuscript had come to light, Mr. Salomon was among ahandful of researchers who studied the language, from the Brough edition, fromsecular documents in a related language, and from inscriptions on pots, coins,and archaeological ruins. Mr. Salomon specialized in those arcane inscriptions,which are in Kharosthi, a script based on the Aramaic alphabet.   In1994, his preparation paid off when he was contacted by officials at theBritish Library, who had acquired a collection of what appeared to be many moreGandhari-dialect manuscripts written in Kharosthi. An anonymous donor had giventhe library 29 extremely fragile and brittle fragments of manuscript on birch-barkrolls. "Paper and vellum are like cast iron by comparison," says Mr.Shaw. "The sheer fact that any kinds of manuscripts on this material havesurvived is a miracle. "Library experts and Mr. Salomon determined thatthe manuscripts dated from the first century AD, and that made them the oldestknown Buddhist manuscripts anywhere, and the oldest Indic manuscripts known tohave survived. Judging by comparisons with other artifacts and by comments intravelers' and early archaeologists' journals, Mr. Salomon deduced that themanuscripts probably had been found in a jar in a cave near Jalalabad in whatis now eastern Afghanistan, close to the ancient region of Gandhara. Gandharawas the seat of a series of powerful dynasties from the third century BC to thefourth century AD. Well-known from abundant archaeological remains, it was acrossroads of cultural influences from India, the West, China, and East Asia,and a melting pot of Greeks, descendants of Scythian invaders from the North,and many others. Archaeological remains and other evidence show that it wasalso an important center of Buddhism. "It only stood to reason thatthere'd be a literary component of that culture," says
Mr. Salomon. "Some of the pieces were in place, and now the literarylanguage falls right into place, too."Mr. Salomon, whose curly hair andheavy spectacles make him appear rather more bookish than swashbuckling,visibly winces as he takes stock of how long it has taken for the tradition toemerge. "Many Gandhari manuscripts were destroyed, lost, thrown out,"he says. "Believe it or not, they were not recognized as valuable objects,even by scholars -- certain archaeologists -- who should have knownbetter."The British Library collection has grown from 29 to 57 fragments,and to triple its original volume, with the addition of other groups ofmanuscripts that were sitting unidentified in private collections. They includesermons, tales, and commentaries, many of which are well-known from otherBuddhist literary traditions. One such find -- eight small, contiguousfragments, making a piece about the size of a page from a standard paperback,from a large commentary on the benefits of meditation -- has just been acquiredby the University of Washington Libraries, while the other manuscripts are atthe British Library. Because the documents are so fragile, the Washingtonresearchers study digital and photographic images of them.To date themanuscripts, researchers have used such techniques as comparing their contentswith inscriptions on coins, and names or events mentioned in other texts.Similar sleuthing suggests that the Kharosthi scrolls came from the library ofa Gandharan monastery of the Dharmaguptaka sect of Buddhists; that they datefrom the first century AD; and that they were found in modern-day northernPakistan or eastern Afghanistan. Interlinear notations such as"copied" indicate that the manuscripts were discarded ones that hadbeen replaced by freshly made ones. Apparently, says Mr. Salomon, themonasteries had well-organized scriptoriums and large libraries even at thatearly stage.  That leads him and his colleagues to believe that thetexts have enormous significance because they support the "Gandharihypothesis" that Mr. Brough and some other scholars long ago proposed:that some early Chinese translations of Buddhist texts were prepared fromGandhari rather than Sanskrit originals. Greeted with skepticism at first,这句可以出一个题^_^ that possibility nowappears certain. The new discoveries reveal "a missing link between thebirth of Buddhism in India and its later forms in China and elsewhere inAsia," says Michael Witzel, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian studies atHarvard University. The link is quite complicated, Mr. Witzel says. The newlyfound manuscripts are "not from the formative stages of Buddhism."The religion's original language was probably a lost eastern-Indian dialect, aslater Pali texts from western India suggest. But since that tradition wasprobably never written down, says Mr. Salomon, "this brings us as close aswe're ever going to get to the earliest written form of the Buddha's words. "Eventhough the Gandharan finds predate all other Buddhist holdings, the traditionlinks up with the other strains of Buddhism in "very complicated, messyways" that do not tell any straightforward historical tale, Mr. Salomonexplains. "In a way, that's disappointing. But that's a superficialreaction. Then it's daunting. And then it's exciting. It really does shakethings up. "In trying to identify exactly what the relationships are, heand his colleagues, including Collett D. Cox, an associate professor ofBuddhist studies here, and Mark Allon, an Australian Research Council
fellow at the University of Sydney, are minutely comparing them with parallelsin Pali, Sanskrit, and Chinese, and are even finding a few parallels in theTibetan tradition, which developed later, but from a different stream. Forexample, among the texts in the collection is the Anavatapata-gatha, acollection of sermons on the nature of perception that the Buddha is said tohave delivered on the banks of Lake Anavatapata. Those are known from laterversions in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan. Also found was a version of theverse compilation known in Pali as the Khaggavisana-sutta of the Sutta-nipata,the Buddha's sermons on the horn of the rhinoceros (sutta-nipata). In both thePali and Gandhari "Rhinoceros Sutra," the rhinoceros, as an animalthat wanders alone, symbolizes detachment from material things. Many texts inthe collection, however, do not have such analogues. "A large proportionof this literature," says Mr. Salomon, "existed only in that region, and is not part of pan-Buddhist literature. That is again daunting" --because it makes translation even harder -- "and yet wonderful."  Wonderful, agrees Mr. Shaw of the British Library, because the writings in the newmanuscripts are proving to be closer to those in Chinese Buddhist versions thanto those in the Pali canon, which has generally been regarded as the standard."There were obviously various Buddhist canons circulating in early days indifferent dialects," he says. The manuscripts also throw light on the way that Buddhist tradition was transmitted. "Oral transmission had been the preferred or normal way -- memorization, recitation, and so forth," saysMr. Salomon. "What we're now finding out is that, in the first and second century AD, the notion of writing things down took off in a big way." For those reasons the manuscripts are, says Mr. Witzel of Harvard, "the Qumran manuscripts of Buddhism." His allusion is to the Dead Sea Scrolls, and their importance in understanding early Christianity and its Judaic roots.Scholars in the broad field of Indic studies generally agree that the comparison of the two writings, which date from the same time, is apt. Mr.Salomon concurs, but he adds, referring to the famous squabbles that have bogged down the publication of the Dead Sea Scrolls: "From the beginning,I've structured this project's strategies to be the exact opposite to the DeadSea Scrolls. That entails actually doing research and publishing it, rather than dickering around for 40 years, or whatever they were doing."Setting a brisk pace by academic-publishing standards, the project has released one major volume a year since 1999 in a series from the University of Washington Press.Achieving that efficiency -- even publishing the texts at all -- is a matter of old-fashioned "philological slogging," says Mr. Salomon."Technology helps, but the bottom line is knowing the words and the letters and the languages and the cultures." He knows 12 ancient and modern languages  The Kharosthi ClubAny Friday afternoon here, he and his colleagues are in session for what they like to call "the Kharosthi Club," trying to tease out secrets that ancient Gandhara does not give up easily. In a classroom, the researchers pore over images of the tattered-manuscripts, badly obscured by creases, with missing fragments and distorted or jumbled script. The damage occurred when the documents were painstakingly unrolled by British Library conservationists, and fragile leaves of birch-bark manuscript inevitably adhered to others. "Are you interpreting that loop as part of that letter, or the one to the right or the left? Or the one above?" asks one researcher, holding the image of the page this way, then that. "This needs the treatment," concludes Mr. Salomon, meaning that the original manuscript page, still housed at the British Library, must beviewed under infrared light. "That brings out things that are literally not there to the naked eye," he says.In each session, the Kharosthi Club-- seven or eight University of Washington researchers of the language and script, a good proportion of the world's total supply -- spend an afternoon that may extend well into the evening parsing out locatives from genitives without endings, grappling over orthographic issues, testing possible ways of reading letters or words, and making judgment calls: Is a reading justified on the basis of, say, the handwriting of a particular scribe? In some cases, even an educated conjecture cannot be made, so some words go untranslated, as often occurs in the translation of ancient texts. To piece together fragments of manuscript, the researchers often must work with images of small tatters of bark, fitting them together as one might assemble a raggedly cut jigsaw puzzle.That work is facilitated by computer-graphics software, but still, as Mr.Salomon says, "there were no high-tech miracles." For him, performing the philological, editorial, historical, and literary-critical work of the project has been a case of being in the right place after preparing to get there for a long time, beginning with his studies of Sanskrit as a ColumbiaUniversity undergraduate in the 1960s. "As luck would have it, this stuff pops up, so that'll be almost exclusively my field for the rest of my working life," he says. In addition to numerous volumes about the manuscripts, he envisages a dictionary of Gandhari, and a grammar -- and, over all, a boom in Gandharan literary studies. He and his colleagues Ms. Cox, Mr. Allon, and one postdoctoral fellow, Timothy Lenz, have completed four volumes in the series. A doctoral candidate, Andrew Glass, has contributed significantly to sections on paleography and orthography in two books. "It's a growth industry,"says Mr. Salomon. He and his colleagues already had a sense of Gandharan culture, but of the manuscript finds, he says: "It's like the flesh being added to the bones."

Mandy0815

关于第24篇，我貌似找到了原文了

In this season of swine flu, you'd be forgiven for staying home if you felt a bit under the weather. But what if you got in your car and drove to the next state? That's essentially what male damselflies do when they're not feeling well, according to a new study. The move may help these delicate-looking cousins of dragonflies find more sanitary surroundings and colonize new habitats.
There's been circumstantial evidence that damselflies and even songbirds such as great tits move far from home when sick, but no one had rigorously tested the idea, says evolutionary ecologist Markus Rantala of the University of Turku in Finland. His team wasn't planning on testing it either. Instead, Rantala and colleagues wanted to see whether damselfly males become less territorial when they have to spend energy fighting an infection. They do, to an extreme. When the researchers inserted snippets of nylon fiber--which provoke the immune system by imitating the mouthparts of a parasitic mite--into the insects' abdomens, all of them fled, says Rantala.
That inconvenient result inspired the team to tackle the link between dispersal and sickness. With the help of several students, the researchers netted 234 male damselflies--which are easier to capture and track than females--at three sites. Under a tent by a river, they inserted bits of nylon fiber into some of the insects. A second group got a sham operation, a slender puncture wound without the filament. And a third group was only handled. The researchers returned each insect to his original territory and checked back over the next 4 days to see who stayed home and who flew off.
The males "infected" with faux parasites flew four times as far as the control males--about 400 meters on average and up to 2.5 kilometers, the researchers report online this month in Oecologia. Only a single control male flew that far, and, by the end of the study, he had symptoms of a real disease, a fungus. The sham-operated males were in between, which makes sense, Rantala says, because wound healing requires a mild immune response.
"It was a very dramatic shift in how far these insects went," says ecologist Robert Holt of the University of Florida, Gainesville, who was not involved in the study. Even though parasites harm the individual, he adds, they could actually help the species by goading damselflies to spread across the landscape.
As to why sick damselflies disperse, it may be that fighting infection takes so much energy that the insects can't muster the strength to defend their territory, Rantala says. At the same time, the move might help them find a habitat where they are less likely to be parasitized again. That idea "needs a lot more attention," says Sonia Altizer, an ecologist at the University of Georgia, Athens, who was not involved with the study. If dispersal is a defense against parasites and pathogens, she worries that humanmade barriers such as roads and dams could cause animal populations to get stuck in one place and accumulate diseases.
Still, evolutionary ecologist Mark Forbes of Carleton University in Ottawa warns against overinterpreting the study. He wants to see whether real parasites have the same effect as artificial ones--and to know how widespread the phenomenon is in other species. "It's one of those studies that's going to generate a lot of interest" in how parasites influence the movement of species, he says.

Mandy0815

Mandy0815 发表于 2017-10-22 13:49
关于第24篇，我貌似找到了原文了

In this season of swine flu, you'd be forgiven for staying home if y ...

我觉得如果这个这个是原文的话，第二十四篇逻辑是这样的。

首先有一些人说，一堆像鸟儿，虫子生病了，就离家远远的。但是没有人证实了。蹦出了一个MR的人跑去证是不是公的less territorial 当他们infection的时候。 首先他们模仿寄生虫蜘蛛注射了一种能激发immune system的东西，所有的虫子离家远远的。

然后，这个实验不完整啊，他们看跑的远和疾病有啥关系。然后弄了三组。第一组，真的注射那种模仿的物质，第二种，只是在sham 假装划了一下，第三种 啥都没干。发现啥都没干的也就是 control 那组，最近，只有一只跑的和infected 一样远，那只不幸也染病了。而那个划一下的在中间，因为你画一下是 mild immune reponse.

这个就说为啥跑啊，首先，有可能是defend the territory. 或者说，我跑了，就不会再感染parasitize了。这个就有一个问题，人们修建了一堆大坝啥的，昆虫咋跑。

最后说这个还不行，我们给昆虫住的是人工的，模仿的，真的效果一样吗，同样你是在研究dansefly，其他的一样吗。

学猫叫的蘑菇

跪谢各位大佬~

PRIATE

阅读寂静该怎么用啊

songjingshu

顶楼主！