Guide to the Logical Fallacies

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Index

Fallacies of Distraction
•    False Dilemma: two choices are given when in fact there are three options
•    From Ignorance: because something is not known to be true, it is assumed to be false
•    Slippery Slope: a series of increasingly unacceptable consequences is drawn
•    Complex Question: two unrelated points are conjoined as a single proposition
Appeals to Motives in Place of Support
•    Appeal to Force: the reader is persuaded to agree by force
•    Appeal to Pity: the reader is persuaded to agree by sympathy
•    Consequences: the reader is warned of unacceptable consequences
•    rejudicial Language: value or moral goodness is attached to believing the author
•    opularity: a proposition is argued to be true because it is widely held to be true
Changing the Subject
•    Attacking the Person:
o    (1) the person's character is attacked
o    (2) the person's circumstances are noted
o    (3) the person does not practise what is preached
•    Appeal to Authority:
o    (1) the authority is not an expert in the field
o    (2) experts in the field disagree
o    (3) the authority was joking, drunk, or in some other way not being serious
•    Anonymous Authority: the authority in question is not named
•    Style Over Substance: the manner in which an argument (or arguer) is presented is felt to affect the truth of the conclusion
Inductive Fallacies
•    Hasty Generalization: the sample is too small to support an inductive generalization about a population
•    Unrepresentative Sample: the sample is unrepresentative of the sample as a whole
•    False Analogy: the two objects or events being compared are relevantly dissimilar
•    Slothful Induction: the conclusion of a strong inductive argument is denied despite the evidence to the contrary
•    Fallacy of Exclusion: evidence which would change the outcome of an inductive argument is excluded from consideration
Fallacies Involving Statistical Syllogisms
•    Accident: a generalization is applied when circumstances suggest that there should be an exception
•    Converse Accident : an exception is applied in circumstances where a generalization should apply
Causal Fallacies
•    ost Hoc: because one thing follows another, it is held to cause the other
•    Joint effect: one thing is held to cause another when in fact they are both the joint effects of an underlying cause
•    Insignificant: one thing is held to cause another, and it does, but it is insignificant compared to other causes of the effect
•    Wrong Direction: the direction between cause and effect is reversed
•    Complex Cause: the cause identified is only a part of the entire cause of the effect
Missing the Point
•    Begging the Question: the truth of the conclusion is assumed by the premises
•    Irrelevant Conclusion: an argument in defense of one conclusion instead proves a different conclusion
•    Straw Man: the author attacks an argument different from (and weaker than) the opposition's best argument
Fallacies of Ambiguity
•    Equivocation: the same term is used with two different meanings
•    Amphiboly: the structure of a sentence allows two different interpretations
•    Accent: the emphasis on a word or phrase suggests a meaning contrary to what the sentence actually says
Category Errors
•    Composition: because the attributes of the parts of a whole have a certain property, it is argued that the whole has that property
•    Division: because the whole has a certain property, it is argued that the parts have that property
Non Sequitur
•    Affirming the Consequent: any argument of the form: If A then B, B, therefore A
•    Denying the Antecedent: any argument of the form: If A then B, Not A, thus Not B
•    Inconsistency: asserting that contrary or contradictory statements are both true
Syllogistic Errors
•    Fallacy of Four Terms: a syllogism has four terms
•    Undistributed Middle: two separate categories are said to be connected because they share a common property
•    Illicit Major: the predicate of the conclusion talks about all of something, but the premises only mention some cases of the term in the predicate
•    Illicit Minor: the subject of the conclusion talks about all of something, but the premises only mention some cases of the term in the subject
•    Fallacy of Exclusive Premises: a syllogism has two negative premises
•    Fallacy of Drawing an Affirmative Conclusion From a Negative Premise: as the name implies
•    Existential Fallacy: a particular conclusion is drawn from universal premises
Fallacies of Explanation
•    Subverted Support (The phenomenon being explained doesn't exist)
•    Non-support (Evidence for the phenomenon being explained is biased)
•    Untestability (The theory which explains cannot be tested)
•    Limited Scope (The theory which explains can only explain one thing)
•    Limited Depth (The theory which explains does not appeal to underlying causes)
Fallacies of Definition
•    Too Broad (The definition includes items which should not be included)
•    Too Narrow (The definition does not include all the items which shouls be included)
•    Failure to Elucidate (The definition is more difficult to understand than the word or concept being defined)
•    Circular Definition (The definition includes the term being defined as a part of the definition)
•    Conflicting Conditions (The definition is self-contradictory)
References