最近我在突破逻辑的过程中,但是总是发现对于assumption的解答我没有明确的把握,特别是对于现在市面上的各种GMAT,LSAT逻辑中关于assumption的定义很有疑问。
通常情况下,对于assumption的定义有两种:
一种为:assumption is the unstated premise,这个当然正确,但是定义不够明确,也就是说特色不够,无法区分。
另一种为assumption是结论的必要条件,所谓必要条件,在形式逻辑(formal logic)的定义为:若p->q为永真式,那么q为p的必要条件。(p,q为判断(preposition,也有翻译为命题的)),有一点我想毋容置疑,即假言三段论(Hypothetical Syllogism)的否定式,若p->q且~q,那么~p
(也即(p->q)^(~q)->~q为永真式)
对于这一种定义,我深表怀疑。
对于直言三段论来说(Syllogism)
所有的M为P
所有的S为M
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所有的S为P
此为直言三段论的一个有效式,“所有的M为P”为此三段论的大前提,对于这么一个推理,即:
所有S为M ---〉所有的S为P,此无疑为一个假设。但是,当我们对此假设取非,即~(MAP) <-> MOP,即有的M不为P,这个时候,“有的M不为P”不必然推出原结论“所有的S为P”为假。存在这么一种情况,即所有S为P,所有S为M,但有的M不为P,即从集合论的角度,S属于(M交P),但是M不属于P。
以上是对于演绎推理而言(deductive reasoning),对于归纳推理也是如此。
例如,一个求异法的例子(method of difference, 穆勒5法第2法,用于因果关系推理(causal reasoning))
在第一个场合,有A存在,B发生。(A先于B)
在第二个场合,A不存在,B不发生
两个场合其他条件不变
----------------------------------------------------------------------
A为B的原因
对于这么一个推理,“A为唯一变化的因素(或者反过来说其他变化因素不存在)”就为假设。例如LSAT-91-12-Section4-Question12
The more television children watch, the less competent they are in mathematical knowledge. More than a third of children in the United States watch television for more than five hours a day; in South Korea the figure is only 7 percent. But whereas less than 15 percent of children in the United States understand advanced measurement and geometric concept, 40 percent of South Korea children are competent in these areas. Therefore, if Untied States children are to do well in mathematics, they must watch less television.
Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends?
(A) Children in the United States are less interested in advanced measurement and geometric concepts than are South Korea children.
(B) South Korea children are more disciplined about doing schoolwork than are children in the United States.
(C) Children who want to do well in advanced measurement and geometry will watch less than television.
(D) A child’s ability in advanced measurement and geometry increases if he or she watches less than one hour of television a day.(E)
(E) The instruction in advanced measurement and geometric concepts available to children in the United States in not substantially worse than that available to South Korea children.
本题答案如上,为E,就是反过来说的。
那么,即使取非,即A不是唯一的变化因素,还存在X变化了,我们也不能说“A为B的原因”是假的,或者说,A不是B的原因。X变化很可能是一个巧合。
所以说,我以上通过两个例子,反驳了所谓的Assumption为conclusion的必要条件这一说法,那么assumption的定义是什么?我如何才能知道我做一道assumption的题目就一定是对的?
[此贴子已经被作者于2005-3-28 22:55:29编辑过] |