跟新聞聯播一樣,聰明的人就能夠從裡面讀出很多東西,庸才就會忽略過然後跑去刷題。
以下整理成筆記簡版。
OG2020 Critical Reasoning 導讀筆記
- CR測驗的能力有三種:
- 建構論點的能力(Constructing an argument)
- 評估論點的能力(Evaluating an argument)
- 建立或評估方案的能力(Formulating or evaluating a plan of action)
- CR的文章長度大多少於100字。不需要任何專業知識或邏輯專業術語。(不過你至少要知道常見的邏輯用詞如premise、conclusion、assumption)
CR評量什麼?(What Is Measured)
- 所謂的論證(reasoning),就是一連串的論述(statement),其中至少有一個論述能夠支持另一個論述。
- 大部分的CR文章都有論證,少部分的文章只有陳列客觀資訊而不具備論證。
- 考生會被問到的問題有各種各樣,都在評量不同的能力。包括:
- 分析論證結構(Analyzing Reasoning Structure):辨認前提、解釋、結論、背景資訊等邏輯成分的能力。
- 題目問法範例: Ming uses which of the following techniques in responding to Wei? / Which of the following most accurately describes the functions of each boldfaced part of the passage?
- 導出結論(推論)(Drawing Conclusions (inference)):從給定資訊中導出結論的能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following is most strongly supported by the information provided? / Which of the following follows logically from the information provided?
- 認定充分或必要假設(Identifying sufficient or required assumptions):辨認補強解釋或方案邏輯斷點(logical gap)的假設之能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following is an assumption that Fang's reasoning requires? [or “on which Fang's reasoning depends”] / The conclusion follows logically if which of the following is assumed? / The plan will fail unless which of the following occurs?
- 評估假設(Evaluating hypotheses):找出解釋某現象的假說的能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following, if true, most helps explain the failure to achieve the plan's objective? / Which of the following is most likely to contribute to the occurrence of the phenomenon observed? / In order to evaluate the force of the archaeologists' evidence, it would be most useful to determine which of the following?
- 解決明顯矛盾(Resolving apparent inconsistency):調和兩件看似矛盾資訊的能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following most helps to resolve the discrepancy between the reported level of rainfall and the occurrence of flooding in City X?
- 辨認加強削弱資訊(Identifying information that strengthens or weakens reasoning):能夠辨認哪些額外資訊能夠強化/弱化論點可信度的能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following, if discovered, would cast the most doubt on the engineer's reasoning? / Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the support for the physician's diagnosis?
- 發現邏輯錯誤(Recognizing and describing logical flaws):辨認論證錯誤(例如因果關係混淆、充分必要條件混淆)的能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following, if true, most strongly indicates the existence of a flaw in the reasoning? / The reasoning attributed to the executive is most vulnerable to which of the following criticisms?
- 認定爭點(Identifying a point of disagreement):判定爭議中關鍵核心議題的能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following is the main point of disagreement between Mandeep and Saumya?
- 尋找解決方案(Finding a solution to a practical problem):辨認對實際問題有效解決方案的能力。
- 題目問法範例:Which of the following would most help the polling specialists overcome the difficulty they encountered in surveying a sample of likely voters?
CR應試策略(Test-Taking Strategies)
1. 決定哪一種對自己最適合:先讀問題還是先讀文章?(Decide whether you benefit most from reading the passage or the question first.) - 讀問題的時候,要特別注意語意上的細微差別。
- 例如:which of the following is valued by most citizens of nation X? Which of the following is most valued by the citizens of nation x? 可能會導向不同的答案。大部分的居民可能都會在乎財富,但心中認為最重要的可能不是財富,而是人際關係。
2. 判斷文章裡有論證,還是僅有單純的資訊陳述?(Determine whether the passage contains reasoning or merely provides information.) - 仔細思考整篇文章的意圖:
- 證實某件事情成立(support the truth of any other statement provided)
- 解釋某個現象(explain some phenomenon)
- 證實一個方案(justify a plan of action)
- 可以使用推論關鍵詞來輔助判斷(比如consequently, it follows that, so, hence是表結論的,since, as, for, as is shown by, follows from是表前提的)。
- 有些詞可能會有雙重用法(如since可以表原因也可以表時間),需要小心。
- 另外,有些文章也不會特別給出推論關鍵詞。
3. 確定文章的命題與論證結構。(Identify the purpose and structure of any reasoning given in a passage.) - 如果文章是要證明某結論成立,那麼就把結論當作最重要的命題來關注。
- 如果文章是要去解釋某個現象的原因,那麼就去關注這個假說解釋。
- 如果文章是講述論證採行某個方案,那麼這個方案的目的效果有沒有達到就是命題。
- 當你認定了命題,就可以進一步地去思考文章論證的結構為何(是怎麼推出這個論證的),注意句與句之間的邏輯關係。
- 注意premise與conclusion在文章中出現的先後並沒有一定,文章也有可能有中間結論與最終結論。
- 如:among people currently employed, those who wish to retire early will probably not be able to afford to do so(最終結論). Most people these days are spending almost all their income, and therefore few people are saving enough for early retirement (中間結論).
4. 檢驗論證時,嘗試去思考有沒有任何情況是「所有的前提都是對的,但是結論就是不對」(To test reasoning, try to imagine scenarios where the premises are true and the conclusion false.)? - 不需要去計較在現實世界中是否每一句話都是對的(雖然思考時還是會用到生活中的常識常理)。你只需要將所有premise假設為真,在這個架空的情境中思考結論有沒有可能不對。如果在這種情境之下,結論很容易理所當然成立,這就是強論證。反之,如果結論不太可能成立,那就是薄弱論證。(Dustin註:可以用句型「就算真的......(前方premise)好了,但誰說.......就一定會/是/可以.......(最後結論)?」)
- 去學會判斷每個論證說服力強弱程度(跟白痴一樣、有點薄弱、有點可信、非常可信)。雖然題目沒有要求你這樣做,但強烈建議用這種方式練習思考。(原文:There are degrees of logical support. A piece of reasoning can be very weak, moderately weak, moderately strong, or even absolutely certain. Even if you are not directly asked to do so, it is good practice to evaluate any reasoning in a passage, including the plausibility of an explanation or the persuasiveness of the rationale for a plan's success.)
- 注意:一個論證加上額外資訊後,可能會增強說服力,也可能會減弱說服力。(Dustin註:雖然OG沒有明講,但是應該是要讓考生除了練習辨別論證本身的說服力外,近一步去思考加上什麼資訊會對說服力造成強弱的正負面影響。)
應試GMAT必須掌握的邏輯思維概念
1. 對所有被視為是「理所當然」而沒有明講的隱含假設保持警覺。(Be alert to any unstated assumption on which the reasoning may depend.) - 任何填補文章中邏輯斷點的資訊,被稱作「隱含假設」(unstated assumption)。如果隱含假設不可信,則論點非常有可能因此遭到攻擊。
- 隱含假設分成兩種:
- 必要假設(Necessary assumption):該假設一定要成立,論點才有可能成立(並非唯一條件,有可能還有其他條件需要滿足)。
- 充分假設(Sufficient Assumptions):該假設只要成立,則論點一定會成立(是論點要成立唯一需要的隱含條件)。
2. 理解「若P則Q」(if-then)的邏輯推導。(Understand the logic of if-then statements and associated inferences.) - 若P則Q僅能夠推得若非Q則非P(逆否命題)。
- 兩種常見的錯誤推導:
3. 思考敘述所給的資訊到底是充分還是必要條件。(Pay attention to statements that indicate a necessary condition or a sufficient condition.)
- 必要條件(necessary condition):是讓論點成立的其中一個premise,還要搭配其他的必要條件,單獨存在並不能夠論證論點成立。
- 充分條件(sufficient condition):單獨出現便可「保證(guarantee)」論點成立,不需要任何額外的條件。
4. 小心對and/or所進行的取非敘述。(Be careful with negatives applied to AND statements and OR statements.) - 對A and B的否定(取非),意味著A與B不會同時成立,但有可能單獨A或單獨B成立,或者兩者皆不成立。
- 對A or B的否定(取非),意味著兩者各自都不可能成立。
5. 注意概括集合敘述。(Be aware of issues concerning general statements.) - 注意大集合與小集合,母體與個體的邏輯是否能相互推導。
- 例如:「所有的質數都是奇數」不等於「所有的奇數都是質數」。「所有的天才都具備優秀的創意思考能力」不代表「所有創意思考優秀的人都會被稱作天才」。
- Some在某些語境上可能指的是some but not all。但是在邏輯上some其實指的是「at least one」,也就是一點點到全部都有可能。
- 對some的否定不是all,而是none(一個都沒有)。
- Every在語意上就是「100%全部」的意思。
- 對every的否定不是none,而是not all,也就是0~99.99....%的概念。
- 注意:Every有可能表達空集合,如:every life-form native only to planets other than earth is carbon-based.這句話裡面,every life-form native only to planets other than earth便有可能是空集合(沒有任何地球之外的生物)。
- 但是some代表一定不是空集合,因為some很明顯指向「最少有一個」。所以以下這句話便是邏輯錯誤的:some life-forms native only to planets other than earth are carbon-based.
- 小心辨別概括敘述的邏輯語意差別,非常容易誤讀,比如下面兩句話中,第二句就比第一句更合理。
- Some food is the favorite of every adult in nation X.(所有人都喜歡同一種食物)
- Every adult in nation X has some favorite food.(所有人都有自己對食物的偏好)
6. 注意有問題的定義敘述。(Note ways in which definitions can be defective.) • 定義是拿來讓文章中模糊的概念變得更清晰的。 • 定義如果太模糊,就會讓論點有問題。 • 定義如果太狹隘,也會錯誤地排除掉原本合理應該要囊括的事物或概念。舉例而言:An athlete is a fast runner or high jumper. 難道其他運動的參與者就不算是運動員嗎? • 定義也有可能犯循環論證的錯誤。如:「大氣壓力就是大氣中的空氣壓力」。沒有任何意義。
7. 思考如何確認假說解釋的正確性。(Understand how hypotheses are confirmed.) • 比如在實驗中,我們已經成功地控制了所有實驗組跟控制組的變因,我們要如何繼續證明實驗結果所得到的假說解釋? • 應該要做更多的類似實驗,確保實驗結果不是只是巧合或例外,藉以增強假說解釋的可信度。 • 另外,也可以思考取樣是否有代表性,能否代表實驗室外的整個群體。
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