GMAT OG13 阅读笔记（6篇/日）

1369179610

14.
段一
【 Milankovitch】 proposed in the early twentieth
century that the ice ages were caused by variations  
in the Earth's orbit around the Sun.【 For some  
time】 this theory was considered untestable,  
largely【 because】 there was no sufficiently precise  
chronology of the ice ages with which the orbital  
variations could be matched.  


本段大意：Milankovitch认为冰河世纪是地球轨道变化导致的。For some  
time，这个说法无法被证实，because 没有确切的年代表用于与变化匹配。


段二
To establish such a chronology it is necessary
to determine the relative 【amounts of land ice】that  
existed at various times in the Earth's past.A recent
discovery makes such a determination possible:
relative land-ice volume for a given period can be  
deduced from the ratio of two oxygen isotopes,
16 and 18, found in ocean sediments.Almost
all the oxygen in water is oxygen 16,but a few  
molecules out of every thousand incorporate the
heavier isotope 18.When an ice age begins,the
continental ice sheets grow, steadily reducing the
amount of water evaporated from the ocean that
will eventually return to it.Because heavier isotopes
tend to be left behind when water evaporates  
from the ocean surfaces, the remaining ocean  
water becomes progressively enriched in oxygen  
18. 【The degree of enrichment can be determined】
by analyzing ocean sediments of the period,  
because these sediments are composed of calcium  
carbonate shells of marine organisms, shells that  
were constructed with oxygen atoms drawn from
the surrounding ocean. The higher the ratio of  
oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 in a sedimentary specimen,
the more land ice there was when the sediment  
was laid down.


本段大意：
年代表的确定需要测量the amounts of land ice的变化。计算海底沉淀物的氧18。这是因为沉积物中有贝类，它们吸收周围海洋的氧原子制造自己的壳。壳中含有氧18含量越高，沉积物沉寂下来的那个时期大陆冰越多。


段三
   As an indicator of shifts in the Earth's climate,  
the 【isotope record has two advantages.】 First, it is
a global record: there is remarkably little variation
in isotope ratios in sedimentary specimens taken  
from different continental locations. Second, it is  
a more continuous record than that taken from
rocks on land. Because of these advantages,  
sedimentary evidence can be dated with sufficient  
accuracy by radiometric methods to establish a
【precise chronology of the ice ages.】 The dated
isotope record shows that the fluctuations in  
global ice volume over the past several hundred
thousand years have a pattern: an ice age occurs  
roughly once every 100,000 years. These data have  
established 【a strong connection between】 variations
in the Earth's orbit and the periodicity of the ice  
ages.


同位素标记有两个优点，一个是普遍适用性，一个是持续性。利用这两个优点，年代表可以被精确地测量出来。通过同位素标记发现：每100,000年会出现一次冰河时期，这个现象证明地球轨道变化和冰河时期的周期规律是紧密相连的。


段四
    However, it is important to note that other
factors, such as volcanic particulates or variations
in the amount of sunlight received by the Earth,  
could potentially have affected the climate. The  
advantage of the Milankovitch theory is that it  
is testable; changes in the Earth's orbit can be  
calculated and dated by applying Newton's laws  
of gravity to progressively earlier configurations
of the bodies in the solar system. Yet the lack of
information about other possible factors affecting  
global climate does not make them unimportant.  


其他的因素：火山微粒和阳光的量 也会影响气候。M的理论的优势是它可以被检验，而且通过地球轨道的变化人们可以推知太阳系其他星球的位置。但是被忽略的因素不会因为被忽略了就失去了它本身的重要性。










本文类型是问题解决型：
段一：提出问题——一个假说由于没有年代表而无法证实其真实性。
段二：解决办法：同位素标记法：年代表--冰的数量--氧18
段三：结果：假说是真的
段四：影响结果的其他因素。




单词：


be caused by     variations    untestable   chronology    isotope     deduce    incorporate
evaporate     progressively     enrichment    sediment   calcium carbonate   lay down
radiometric    fluctuation      periodicity   particulate   configuration


由。。。导致     变动      不能证明的    年代表    同位素    推理出来    包含
蒸发         逐步地       浓缩       沉积物     碳酸钙      沉淀下来
放射性测量的    波动，涨落    周期性     微粒     组合，排列






难句背诵：
fluctuations in global ice volume
variations in the amounts of sunlight received by the Earth
*in的用法：表示某一个方面。


When the ice age begins, the continental ice sheets grow, steadily reducing the amount of water evaporated from the ocean that will eventually return to it.
本句话的理解质量直接关系到64题能否作对。
关键点：蒸发的海水以降雨的形式回到大陆冰块上时随即被冰冻，从而不会再流回到海洋中。（因此海洋中氧18的浓度越来越高。）




Yet the lack of information about other possible factors affecting global climate does not make them unimportant.






题目：


consistent    open up   predominated   stretch back   precipitation   susceptible   deterioration
连续的        打开       占支配地位的   展开           降雨             易受影响的     变坏，恶化


inference 题目 要回到原文定位，尤其是那种有些模糊的概念。（67）

　Milankovirch proposed in the early twentieth century that the ice ages were caused by variations in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. for some time this theory was considered untestable, largely because there was no sufficiently precise chronology of the ice ages with which the orbital variations could be matched.
　　To establish such a chronology it is necessary to determine the relative amounts of land ice that existed at various tines in the Earth’s past. A recent discovery makes such a determination possible: relative land-ice volume for a given period can be deduced from the ratio of two oxygen isotopes, 16 and 18, found in ocean sediments. Almost all the oxygen in water is oxygen 16, but a few molecules out of every thousand incorporate the heavier isotope 18. when an ice age begins, the continental ice sheets grow, steadily reducing the amount of water evaporated from the ocean that will eventually return to it. Because heavier isotopes tend to be left behind when water evaporates from the ocean surfaces, the remaining ocean water becomes progressively enriched in oxygen 18. the degree of enrichment can be determined by analyzing ocean sediments of the period, because these sediments of the period, because these sediments are composed of calcium carbonate shells of marine organisms, shells that were constructed with oxygen atoms drawn from the surrounding ocean. The higher the ratio of oxygen 16 in a sedimentary specimen, the more land ice there was when the sediment was laid down.
　　As an indicator of shifts in the Earth’s climate, the isotope record has two advantages. First, it is a global record: there is remarkably little variation in isotope ratios in sedimentary specimens taken from different continental locations. Second, it is a more continuous record than that taken from rocks on land. Because of these advantages, sedimentary evidence can be dated with sufficient accuary by radiometric methods to establish a precise chronology of the ice ages. The dated isotope record shows that the fluctuations in global ice volume over the past several hundred thousand years have a pattern: an ice age occurs roughly once every 100,000 years. These data have established a strong connection between variations in the Earth’s orbit and the periodicity of the ice ages.
　　However, it is important to note that other factors, such as volcanic particulates or variations in the amount of sunlight received by the Earth, could potentially have affected the climate. The advantage of the Milankovitch theory is that it is testable; changes in the Earth’s orbit can be calculated and dated by applying Newton’s laws of gravity to progressively earlier configurations of the bodies in the solar system. Yet the lack of information about other possible factors affecting global climate does not make them unimportant.
　　米兰科维奇早在二十世纪初就提出冰期是由地球环绕太阳的轨道变化引起的。原先人们认为这一理论是无法证实的，主要是因为没有足够准确的冰期年表可以和轨道变化规律做比照。
　　要建立冰期年表就需要测定以前地球上各个不同时期的陆冰相对存量。最新发现使这种测定成为可能：一个特定时期的相对陆冰量可以从海洋沉积物中氧的同位素O16 和O18 的比例推算出来。在水里，几乎所有的氧都是O16 ，但是，在一千个水分子中，会有几个与O18 结合。冰期开始的时候，大陆冰盖逐渐增大，这使得从海洋蒸发最终又回到海洋的水稳步减少。当水份从海洋表面蒸发时，相对较重的O18 会留下来，所以海水中的O18 会越来越多。通过对这一时期海洋沉积物的分析就可以测定O18的含量，因为这些沉积物是由海洋微生物的碳酸钙骨骼构成的，而这些骨骼又是获取周边海域的氧原子构建的。沉积物样本中O18和O16 的比例越高，这些沉积物形成时期的陆冰面积就越大。
　　作为地球气候转变的标志，这种同位素记录有两大优势。其一，它是全球性的记录，从不同大洲取来的沉积物样本中同位素比例几乎没有区别。其二，与从岩石和土壤中获得的记录相比，它更具有连续性。因为有这些优势，才能通过辐射测量法测定沉积物样本的年代，从而建立准确的陆冰年表。确定年代的同位素记录显示出在过去几十万年中全球冰川变换的规律：冰期大约每100000年出现一次。这些数据还显示出地球轨道变化与冰期周期性之间的紧密联系。
　　然而，要注意的是火山微粒和地球所吸收阳光量的变化也可能是影响气候变化的潜在因素。米兰科维奇理论的优势在于它是可测定的。用牛顿重力定律可以计算出地球轨道变化并确定更早的太阳系天体布局年代。缺少其它影响地球气候的可能因素并不意味已经确定的因素不重要。

1369179610

13.


段一
In  Winters v. United States (1908), the Supreme  
Court held that the right to use waters flowing through
or adjacent to the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation  
was reserved to American Indians by the treaty  
establishing the reservation. Although this treaty did
not mention water rights, the Court ruled that the
federal government, when it created the reservation,  
intended to deal fairly with American Indians by  
【reserving】 for them the waters 【without which their  
lands would have been useless.】 Later decisions, 【citing  
Winters,】 established that 【courts can find federal rights
to reserve water for particular purposes if (1) the land  
in question lies within an enclave under exclusive
federal jurisdiction, (2) the land has been formally  
withdrawn from federal public lands —i.e., withdrawn
from the stock of federal lands available for private  
use under federal land use laws —and set aside or
reserved, and (3) the circumstances reveal the  
government intended to reserve water as well as land  
when establishing the reservation. 】


reserve：保持，拥有，保留某种权利
举例：
The management reserves the right to refuse admission.  管理部门有权拒绝接收。
all rights reserved 版权所有








虚拟语气之含蓄条件句的用法-条件暗含在短语中：


What would I have done [without] you? (have done 表示的是已经完结的动作。)


   [But for your help] we couldn't have succeeded in your experiment.


He must have the strenghtn of the hippopotamus, [or] he never could have vanquished that great beast.


[Alone,] he would have been terrified.


It would be easier to do it this way.(to do 表示的是即将发生的动作。)




同位语修饰的使用：（很赞的写作手法~~~）


... was reserved to American Indians by the treaty [establishing the reservsation].


本句中 establishing the reservsation 可以和 the treaty 交换位置或相互代替。


Later decisions, [citing Winters,] established that....


同理，citing winters 可以和 decisions 相互交换位置 或相互代替。






1.find  裁决
 举例：
How do you find the accused?
The jury found him guilty of manslaughter.(过失杀人)
The court found in her favor.


2.in question  提到的，讨论的，质疑的
3.under exclusive jurisdiction  不在管辖范围之内
4.withdraw 收回
5.under laws  在法律管辖下
6.circumstance 事实，情况
7.establish the reservation 确立专用地


本段大意：在W 案里，最高法院将流经印第安保留地的水域判给印第安人。之后的决议 确定法院在以下三种情况可以收回水权:
1)当提到的土地不归联邦管的时候；
2）国有土地以股票等形式回收归国有的时候；
3）在确立专用地的时候联邦打算保留水权和土地权的情况。








段二
Some American Indian tribes have also established  
water rights through the courts based on their  
traditional diversion and use of certain waters prior to
the United States' acquisition of sovereignty. For  
example, the Rio Grande pueblos already existed when
the United States acquired sovereignty over New
Mexico in 1848. Although they at that time became  
part of the United States, the pueblo lands never  
formally constituted a part of federal public lands; in  
any event, no treaty, statute, or executive order has  
ever designated or withdrawn the pueblos from public
lands as American Indian reservations. This fact,  
however, has not barred application of the  Winters
doctrine. What constitutes an American Indian
reservation is a question of practice, not of legal  
definition, and the pueblos have always been treated  
as reservations by the United States. This pragmatic
approach is buttressed by  Arizona v. California (1963),  
wherein the Supreme Court indicated that the manner
in which any type of federal reservation is created  
does not affect the application to it of the Winters
doctrine. Therefore, the reserved water rights of  
Pueblo Indians have priority over other citizens' water  
rights as of 1848, the year in which pueblos must be
considered to have become reservations.  
本段大意：一些部落保留了水权。例如RG村庄，虽然在1848年，它属于美国，但是其土地并不归美国国有。但是这没能阻止W 文件的实施，这个村庄也市场被认为是美国的专用地。不过只要不干预w法案的实施，美国政府是赞同这种灵活处理的。因此，从1848年（RG村庄被看做是美国的专用地）起，印第安人的水权要高于其他公有水权。










本文类型是现象解释型：
段一：现象——w法案中，流经和毗邻印第安专用地的水域使用权归印第安人。原因：本来政府就打算这么做。+w协议例外条款。
段二：深入说明现象：部落还通过法院自己确定水权。举例：RG村庄水权归村庄所有，只要w法案继续施行。










单词：


hold     waters    adjacent to   fort   reservation     reserve    treaty   water rights    rule
fairly    decisions     citing    establish    in question    enclave   diversion    acquisition
pueblo    constitute    executive order   bar   doctrine   pragmatic    buttress   priority over
as of  




认为   水域   毗邻   堡垒   保留地   保留   条款   水权   判决  
公平地   决议   决议   确立   考虑的   飞地（在一个国家领土中的非本国所有的土地）   转移，改变   最高统治权
村庄   等同于   美国总统之行政命令     封锁    法律原则    实际的    支持，鼓励    优先于
自从=as from


难句背诵：


the land in question lies within an enclave under exclusive federal jurisdiction


题目：


rescind      criteria      explicitly     as such    disputing    defer to   prior       primarily
废除          标准           明确地        本身       争论的       遵从       优先的      根本上


60题：文章为何提到这个事实——RG村庄从未从根本上被回收，成为美国的公有土地？
A 暗含解释为甚么之前有观点认为RG不适用于w法案。

1369179610

12.


第一小层：
Among the myths taken as fact by the environmental
managers of most corporations is the belief that
environmental regulations affect all competitors
in a given industry uniformly.


这个说法是非常荒谬的，却被大多数公司的环境经理认为是对的：环境监管在特定行业里对所有竞争者影响相同。







第二小层：


In reality,regulatory costs —and therefore compliance —fall unevenly,
economically disadvantaging some companies and benefiting others.For
example,a plant situated near a number of larger noncompliant competitors
is less likely to attract the attention of local regulators than is an
isolated plant, and less attention means lower costs. Additionally, large
plants can spread compliance costs such as waste treatment across a larger  
revenue base; on the other hand, some smaller plants may not even be subject
to certain provisions such as permit or reporting requirements by virtue of
their size.




实际（生活）中，每个公司监管成本并不一样，这在经济上对一些企业有利，同时对另一些企业不利。例如，在
一堆不守规矩的企业中，而不是单独存在的一个守规矩的企业，更不容易被监管者注意，即更加省钱。此外，大
企业支付得起服从监管的费用，另一方面，小企业可能连许可证和定期报告都不用做。




第三小层：
Finally, older production technologies often continue
to generate toxic wastes that were not regulated when
the technology was first adopted. New regulations
have imposed extensive compliance costs on
companies still using older industrial coal-tfired  
burners that generate high sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide outputs, for example, whereas new  
facilities generally avoid processes that would  
create such waste products.


最终的情况是，旧生产技术继续排放有毒物质，新规定强制施行使它们服从监管成本的过高，然而新的设备通常避免产生那些有毒物质的工序。




第四小层：
By realizing that they have discretion and that not
all industries are affected equally by environmental
regulation,environmental managers can help their
companies to achieve a competitive edge by anticipating  
regulatory pressure and exploring all possibilities  
for addressing how changing regulations will affect  
their companies specifically.  


由于监管者知道他们有决定的自由，并且不同行业受环境监管影响并不相同，所以他们可以通过预见和提前处理环境监管带来的问题帮助自己的企业处于竞争优势。




本文是结论解释型文章：
谬论：环境监管对所有竞争者影响相同。
原因：（由于位置，大小，技术新旧等原因）各公司监管成本不同。
经理可以使公司处于竞争优势。
     
   


单词：
uniformly    in reality      regulatory      compliance    fall  unevenly   situate    waste treatment  
revenue base     be subject to     provision      permit    reporting    by virtue of    toxic
impose     extensive      coal-fired     sulfur dioxide   nitrogen dioxide      outputs   facility
discretion      competitive    anticipating   regulatory    specifically




一致地     事实上    监管的    服从   发生   不平均的    坐落于     废物处理
收入基数   从属，适合     规定   许可证   报告    由于    有毒的  
强加   广阔的     烧煤的    二氧化硫   一氧化氮    产出   设备
决定条件   竞争的   预感，分析    监管的   具体地




难句：
Among the myths taken as fact by the environmental
managers of most corporations is the belief that
environmental regulations affect all competitors
in a given industry uniformly.




Additionally, large plants can spread compliance  
costs such as waste treatment 【across】？ a larger  
revenue base; on the other hand, some smaller
plants may not even be subject to certain  
provisions such as permit or reporting
requirements by virtue of their size.


a plant situated near a number of larger
noncompliant competitors is less likely to attract  
the attention of local regulators than is an isolated  
plant


题目
It  can be inferred from the passage that a large plant  
might have to spend more than a similar 【but】？ smaller
plant on environmental compliance because the larger
plant is  

1369179610

11.


(This passage was adapted from an article written
in 1992.)  


第一小层：
  Some observers have attributed the dramatic  
growth in temporary employment that occurred in  
the United States during the 1980s to increased  
participation in the workforce by certain groups,  
such as first-time or reentering workers, who
supposedly prefer such arrangements.


some observers：1980s' growth in temporary employment is due to increased participation in the workforce by certain groups.
某些观察员观点：1980年短工的增长与劳动力中特殊群体参与的增长有关。




第二小层：
|| However,  
statistical analyses reveal that demographic  
changes in the workforce did not correlate with
variations in the total number of temporary  
workers. Instead, these analyses suggest that
factors affecting employers account for the rise  
in temporary employment.
但分析数据显示，是影响雇主的因素导致的临时工作的上升。




第三小层：
||One factor is product  
demand: temporary employment is favored by
employers who are adapting to fluctuating demand  
for products while at the same time seeking  
to reduce overall labor costs. Another factor
is labor's reduced bargaining strength, which  
allows employers more control over the terms of  
employment.
两个因素：1）产品需求 2）劳动力的讨价还价能力


第四小层：
|| Given the analyses, which reveal that  
growth in temporary employment now far exceeds  
the level explainable by recent workforce entry
rates of groups said to prefer temporary jobs, firms  
should be discouraged from creating excessive  
numbers of temporary positions.
需要抑制公司增加临时工的倾向。




第五小层：
Government policymakers should consider mandating
benefit coverage for temporary employees, promoting
pay equity between temporary and permanent workers,
assisting labor unions in organizing temporary  
workers, and encouraging firms to assign temporary
jobs primarily to employees who explicitly indicate  
that preference.
政府需要为临时工增收，纳入工会管理，鼓励企业优先录取主动倾向做临时工的人临时工作。




本文类型是问题解决型：
问题的界定---问题成因---解决目标---解决办法


单词


supposedly     demographic   correlate with    employer    
fluctuate     overall    bargaining strength      mandate
coverage     equity    primarily


据称     人口统计的     相关    雇主
波动     整体的      议价能力   授权
优势   公平    首先




题目：
correspond to     equitable       facilitate    initiate
与。。。相符       公正的         促进           发起

1369179610

10.
    In the seventeenth -century Florentine textile
industry, women were employed primarily in low-  
paying, low -skill jobs. To explain this segregation  
of labor by gender, economists have relied on  
the useful theory of human capital. According  
to this theory, investment in human capital —the  
acquisition of difficult job-related skills—generally  
benefits individuals by making them eligible to  
engage in well -paid occupations. Women's role as
child bearers, however, results in interruptions in
their participation in the job market (as compared  
with men's) and thus reduces their opportunities  
to acquire training for highly skilled work. In  
addition, the human capital theory explains why  
there was a high concentration of women workers  
in certain low - skill jobs, such as weaving, but not
in others, such a s combing or carding, by positing  
that because of their primary responsibility in child  
rearing women took occupations that could be
carried out in the home.  
    There were, however, differences in pay scales
that cannot be explained by the human capital
theory. For example, male construction workers  
were paid significantly higher wages than female  
taffeta weavers. The wage difference between  
these two low -skill occupations stems from the
segregation of labor by gender: because a limited
number of occupations were open to women, there
was a large supply of workers in their fields, and
this "overcrowding" resulted in women receiving  
lower wages and men receiving higher wages.  


逻辑链：(现象解释型)
现象——women were employed in low-paying low-skill jobs.
解释——theory of human capital
       difficult skills --->well-paid occupations--->women -- low skill
       ps:theory explains why women prefer certain low-skill jobs
理论缺陷——cannot explain pay scales
       example
       原因：demands and supply


单词：
segregation of labor by gender      acquisition of      eligible  
child bearer    interruptions in      weaving    child rearing   take occupations
pay scales     construction worker    taffeta weaver   describe... as..     articulate
flaw  substantiate    accommodate   domestic      occupational




劳动性别歧视       获得     有资格的
生孩子的人     中断   纺织   养育孩子   工作
工资水平      建筑工    纺织工   这样描述某东西   讲清楚
缺陷   具体支持   适应   家庭的    职业的


难句：


According to this theory,investment in human capital--the acquisition of difficult job-related skills--generally benefits individuals by making them eligible to engage in well-paid occupations.


The human capital theory explain why there was a high concerntration of women workers in certain low-skill jobs, such as weaving, but not in others, such as combing or carding, by poisiting that because of their primary responsibility in child rearing women took occupations that could be carried out in the home.

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逻辑简图：logical structure，main idea和tone
句子：    supporting idea 和 evaluation
迁移能力：inference 和 application


注意中心词在文中的同义替换


9.


    【Manufacturers have to do more】 than build large
manufacturing plants to realize economies of scale.  
It is true that as the capacity of a manufacturing  
operation rises, costs per unit of output fall as plant
size approaches "minimum efficient scale," where the  
cost per unit of output reaches a minimum,  
determined roughly by the state of existing technology
and size of the potential market. However, minimum  
efficient scale cannot be fully realized unles s a steady
"throughput" (the flow of materials through a plant) is
attained. The throughput needed to maintain the
optimal scale of production requires careful  
coordination not only of the flow of goods through the
production process, but also of the flow of input from  
suppliers and the flow of output to wholesalers and
final consumers. If throughput falls below a critical  
point, unit costs rise sharply and profits disappear. A
manufacturer's fixed costs and "sunk costs" (original
capital investment in the physical plant) do not
decrease when production declines due to inadequate
supplies of raw materials, problems on the factory  
floor, or inefficient sales networks. 【 Consequently,】  
potential economies of scale are based on the  
physical and engineering characteristics of the  
production facilities—that is, on tangible capital —but
realized economies of scale are operational and  
organizational, and depend on knowledge, skills,  
experience, and teamwork —that is, on organized
human capabilities, or 【intangible capital】.
    The importance of investing in intangible capital  
becomes obvious when one looks at what happens in  
new 【capital -intensive】 manufacturing industries. Such  
industries are quickly dominated, not by the first firms
to acquire technologically sophisticated plants of  
theoretically optimal size, but rather by the first to  
exploit the full potential of such plants. Once some  
firms achieve this, a market becomes extremely hard  
to enter. Challengers must construct comparable  
plants and do so after the first movers have already
worked out problems with suppliers or with new  
production processes. Challengers must create
distribution networks and marketing systems in
markets where first movers have all the contacts and
know-how. And challengers must recruit management  
teams to compete   with those that have already
mastered these functional and strategic activities.










本文逻辑：（结论解释型：结论-解释-举例）
结论：Manufacturers have to do more than build large co.to realize economies of scale.
解释：potential economies of scale are based on both tangible and intangible capital.
举例：Intangible capital are of obvious importance in new capital intensive  manufacturing industries.


单词：
operation     wholesaler    fixed costs     tangible     dominated     sophisticated
optimal        exploit      know-how        


公司         批发商         固定成本         有形的       控制的        复杂的
理想的      利用            诀窍


难句：
It is true that as the capacity of a manufacturing operation rises, costs per unit of output fall as plant size approaches "minimum efficient scale," where the cost per unit of output reaches a minimum，determined roughly by the state of existing technology and size of the potential market.
The "throughput" needed to maintain the optimal scale of production requires careful coordination not only of the flow of goods through the production process, but also of the flow of input from  
suppliers and the flow of output to wholesalers and final consumers."
A manufacturer's fixed costs and "sunk costs" (original capital investment in the physical plant) do not decrease when production declines due to inadequate supplies of raw materials, problems on the factory floor, or inefficient sales networks.

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8.


段一
Current feminist theory, in validating women's own
stories of their experience, has encouraged scholars
of women's history to view the use of women's oral
narratives as the methodology, next to the use of
women's written autobiography, that brings historians
closest to the "reality" of women's lives.


Such narratives, unlike most standard histories（历史记载）, represent
experience from the perspective of women, affirm(承认)
the importance of women's contributions（贡献）, and furnish
present-day women with （提供）historical continuity（连续性） that is  
essential to their identity, individually and collectively.


本层大意：
现在的女权理论在证实妇女自己经历的故事时，鼓励相关史学家使用口述作为仅次于妇女自传的方法，这个方法可以让他们更加近距离地看到真实的妇女生活。
这些叙述，不像标准的历史著述，它是代表着妇女的观点，承认其贡献，并为现代妇女提供她们群体以及个人的身份。


    Scholars of women's history should, however, be  
as cautious 【about】 accepting oral narratives at face
value as they already are 【about】 written memories.  
Oral narratives are【 no more likely than】不会比..更像 are written
narratives to provide a disinterested commentary on  
events or people. Moreover, the stories people tell to  
explain themselves are shaped by narrative devices  
and storytelling conventions, as well as by other  
cultural and historical factors, in ways that the  
storytellers may be unaware of. The political rhetoric  
of a particular era, for example, may influence  
women's interpretations of the significance of their  
experience. Thus a woman who views the Second
World War as pivotal in increasing the social
acceptance of women's paid work outside the home
may reach that conclusion partly and unwittingly  
because of wartime rhetoric encouraging a positive  
view of women's participation in such work.  


本层大意：在表面意思上学者应该像他们对待“写下来的记忆”一样谨慎对待口头叙述。对人，事物口头语言不会比写下来的叙述更能提供一个公平的解说。更何况，故事本身是由叙述方式，讲故事的惯例，习俗以及其他文化，历史因素等被讲述着忽略的方式形成的。
例如，某时期政治辩论术就会影响妇女对她的经历的意义的解释。认为二战是社会接纳妇女外出工作的关键的妇女之所以得出这个结论，在一定程度上是因为当时的政治辩论术在鼓吹这个观点。


本文类型：（结论解释型）


结论：运用口头叙述
解释：更真实地反应妇女的观点
缺陷：女性的观点会受其他因素影响，因此接受口头叙述要谨慎








单词：
feminist   validate   narratives    methodology      next to     autobiography   histories    
affirm     contributions    furnish... with...      continuity     at face value    no more than
moreover     be shaped by      conventions     interpretation    pivotal    acceptance   unwittingly
wartime   rhetoric


女权主义者   证实      叙述      方法论     仅次于         自传      历史记载
承认         贡献      提供      连续性      在表面意思上     不多于
而且       形成       习俗      解释         中枢         接纳      不知情地，无意识地
战争时期    雄辩术




难句：    




Such narratives, unlike most standard histories（历史记载）, represent
experience from the perspective of women, affirm(承认)
the importance of women's contributions（贡献）, and furnish
present-day women with （提供）historical continuity（连续性） that is  
essential to their identity, individually and collectively.


Oral narratives are【 no more likely than】不会比..更像 are written
narratives to provide a disinterested commentary on  
events or people.


题目


refrain from     skeptically     depict ..


避免                   持怀疑地             描绘      

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7.新旧观点对比型
    In 1988 services moved ahead of  
manufacturing as the main product of the United
States economy. But what is meant by "services"?
Some economists define a service as something
that is produced and consumed simultaneously, for  
example, a haircut. The broader, classical definition  
is that a service is an intangible something that
cannot be touched or stored. Yet electric utilities  
can store energy, and computer programmers  
save information electronically. Thus, the classical  
definition is hard to sustain.


新观点：服务是立即消费品
旧观点：服务是无形的资产。
可是由于电力可储存，服务又以电子信息的方式存在电脑里，因此古典定义就值得商榷了
    The United States government's definition is
more practical: services are the residual category
that includes everything that is not agriculture or  
industry. Under this definition, services includes  
activities as diverse as engineering and driving a  
bus. However, besides lacking a strong conceptual
framework, this definition fails to recognize the  
distinction between service industries and service
occupations. It categorizes workers based on their
company's final product rather than on the actual
work the employees perform. Thus, the many
service workers employed by manufacturers—  
bookkeepers or janitors, for example—would
fall under the industrial rather than the services  
category. Such ambiguities reveal the arbitrariness  
of this definition and suggest that, although  
practical for government purposes, it does not  
accurately reflect the composition of the current  
United States economy.  
政府观点：除了工农业的都是服务。但这个观点无法区分服务业和服务性工作：这是因为这个观点是以公司的最终产品来分类的，所以制造商的记账员和看门人也被归为工业，而不是服务业。这个模糊性显示了这个概念的随意性，虽然对于政府来说很好用，但是它没有真正地影响美国的经济构成。


本文是新旧观点对比型：
经济学家的观点，古典观点
政府观点以及缺陷


单词：  


electric utilities       electronically      residual     diverse    conceptual    bookkeeper     janitor
arbitrariness     composition of


电力      电子地      剩余的    多种多样的     观念的，概念的     会计    看门人
任意恣意      组成，构成




题目
pragmatic
实际的    

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6.
段一
    In terrestrial environments, gravity places  
special demands on the cardiovascular systems of
animals. Gravitational pressure can cause blood to  
pool in the lower regions of the body, making it
difficult to circulate blood to critical organs such as  
the brain. Terrestrial snakes, in particular, exhibit
adaptations that aid in circulating   blood against the
force of gravity.  


在陆地环境下，重力会将特殊的要求加在动物的心血循环系统上。重力会让血液自然地淤积在低处，让大脑失血，有一种蛇，很好的适应了这个状况。






段二
    The problem 【confronting】 terrestrial snakes is best
illustrated by what happens to sea snakes when  
removed from their supportive medium. Because the
vertical pressure gradients within the blood vessels  
are counteracted by similar pressure gradients in the  
surrounding water, the distribution of blood
throughout the body of sea snakes remains about
the same regardless of their orientation in space,
provided they remain in the ocean. When removed  
from the water and tilted at various angles with the
head up, however, blood pressure at their midpoint
drops significantly, and at brain level falls to zero.
That many terrestrial snakes in simil ar spatial  
orientations do not experience this kind of circulatory
failure suggests that certain adaptations enable them
to regulate blood pressure more effectively in those
orientations.


confronting：  面临，降临于
the economic problems confronting the country   这个国家所面临的经济问题
陆栖蛇面临的困难用海蛇移到陆地上碰见的困难就很容易清楚了，因为海中压强血液和水是互相抵消的，所以海蛇整个身体上各个点的压强都是一样的，只要它们还在水里。当在陆地上时，不同的角度倾斜血压变化非常快，这是陆栖蛇不会遇见的情况。这说明它们已经很好的适应了这种方向的改变，以及时调整血压。






段三
    One such adaptation is the closer proximity of th
terrestrial snake's heart to its head, which helps to  
ensure circulation to the brain, regardless of the  
snake's orientation in space. The heart of sea snakes
can be located near the middle of the body, a  
position that minimizes the work entailed in  
circulating blood to both extremities. In arboreal  
snakes, however, which dwell in trees and often  
assume a vertical posture, the average distance
from the heart to the head can be as little as 15  
percent of overall body length. Such a location  
requires that blood circulated to the tail of the  
snake travel a greater distance back to the heart,  
a problem solved by another adaptation. When
climbing, arboreal snakes often pause  
momentarily to wiggle their bodies, causing waves
of muscle contraction that advance from the lower  
torso to the head. By compressing the veins and  
forcing blood forward, these contractions  
apparently improve the flow of venous blood
returning to the heart.


这种适应即心脏离头的距离更近。
对比举例：海蛇心脏在身体中间，树蛇的心脏在离头近的一侧，距离只有身体的15%。但是到尾部的血液会更晚回到头部。
由于树蛇经常直立爬行，所以它们靠身体挤压血液快速到达心脏。






本文是问题解决型文章：
问题：重力带给血液循环负担。
解决：陆栖蛇：适应性。
具体：这个适应就是心脏离头更近。 另外，可以通过肌肉收缩，挤压尾部静脉血加速循环。








单词：


demands    cardiovascular       gravitational     pool     exhibit   aid
confronting   supportive       gradients    counteracted by      orientation
provided    tilted      proximity     entail      aboreal      dwell in
posture     average      momentarily    wiggle    muscle contraction   advance
compress    venous blood




令人觉得困难，烦恼的要求   心血管的    重力的    淤积    存在     促进
降临于     有利的          变化率       抵消，中和      方向
条件是     倾斜         距离        承担          树栖      住在
姿势       平均        片刻    扭动      肌肉收缩      前进  
挤压       静脉血




题目


indigenous      inhabit     susceptible  neutralize   tilt
土生土长的       居住        易受影响的   使无效       倾斜

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文章的元素：背景（现象）    结论（观点）   问题      解释（原因）   例子    补充（缺陷）
结论（观点）   问题 始终是十分关键的，因为这是文章存在的意义。




文章架构可简化成：
前提
结论
补充（  肯定结论，提出需弥补的缺陷;  反对结论，提出反前提，反结论。）