GMAT CR最有效的提高方式——简单的重复

wennan411

感谢分享，谢谢！

reflection1987

thank you very much for sharing!!!

freebuzz

thanksforsharning

sharp52

多谢楼主分享！

ddaz

gan xie fen xiang !!

cechymery

谢谢分享！

fausttao

????Chapter Two: The Basics of Critical Reasoning

1.        Approaching the Questions
        Understanding the stimulus is the key to answering any question, and reading the question stem first tends to undermine the ability of students to fully comprehend the information in the stimulus.
        Do not reread the question stem again.
        Some question stems refer to information given the stimulus, or add new conditions to the stimulus information.
        On stimuli with two questions, reading one stem biases the reader to look for that specific information, possibly causing problems while doing the second question, and reading both stems before reading the stimulus wastes entirely too much time and leads to confusion.
        For truly knowledgeable test takers there are situations that arise where the question stem is fairly predictable.
        The question stem is a poor indicator of difficulty.
2.        Arguments versus Fact Sets
(1)        Determine whether the stimulus contains an argument or if it is only a set of factual statements.
Premise indicators        Conclusion indicators
because        Thus
since        Therefore
for        Hence
For example        Consequently
For the reason that        As a result
In that        So
Given that        Accordingly
As indicated by        clearly
Due to        Must be that
Owing to        Shows that
This can be seen from        Conclude that
We know this by        Follows that
        For this reason
(2)        If the stimulus contains an argument, identify the conclusion of the argument. If the stimulus contains a fact, examine each fact.
“Therefore, since…”
“Thus, because…”
“Hence, due to…”

Additional Premise Indicators
Furthermore
Moreover
Besides
In addition
What’s more

Counter-Premise Indicators
But
Yet
However
On the other hand
Admittedly
In contrast
Although
Even though
Still
Whereas
In spite of
Despite
After all

Complex argumentation
Sub-conclusion

A Commonly Used Construction
Some people propose…
Many people believe…
Some argue that…
Some critics claim…
Some critics maintain…
Some scientists believe…

(3)        If the stimulus contains an argument, determine whether the argument is strong or weak

Inference/Assumption

(4)        Read closely and know precisely what the author said. Do not generalize!
Quantity indicators        Probability indicators
all        must
every        Will
most        Always
many        Not always
Some        Probably
several        Likely
few        Would
sole        Not necessarily
only        could
Not all        rarely
none        Never

Scope
Scope can be a useful idea to consider when examining answer choices, because some answer choices go beyond the bounds of what the author has established in the argument.


Chapter Three: The Question Stem and Answer Choices

(5)        Carefully read and identify the question stem. Do not assume that certain words are automatically associated with certain question type.

The Ten Critical Reasoning Question Types
        Prove: stimulus           answer choices
*Must be true/most supported: which can be properly inferred from the passage?
Main point
Method of reasoning: which describes the technique of reasoning used?
Flaw in the reasoning
Parallel reasoning: which is the most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument?
        Must accept the stimulus information
        Any information in an answer choice that does not appear either directly in the stimulus or as a combination of items in the stimulus will be correct.

        Help: stimulus              answer choices
*Assumption
*Strengthen/support
*Resolve the paradox
        The information in the stimulus is suspect.
        The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include new information.

        Hurt: stimulus        x     answer choice
* weaken
        The information in the stimulus is suspect.
        The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include new information.

Evaluate the argument

Question Type notes
        Not contain conclusion: must be true, resolve the paradox.
        Flaw in the Reasoning: explicitly note that the stimulus contains an error of reasoning/ Method of reasoning: question the stimulus contains valid or invalid reasoning.
        Have a strong Must Be True Element: Parallel reasoning, method of reasoning.
“Except”/”least” Type
Strengthen------except---------weaken
Help to resolve the paradox---------except--------do not….

(6)        Prephrase: after reading the question stem, take a moment to mentally formulate your answer to the question stem.
(7)        Always read each of the five answer choices.
(8)        Separate the answer choices into contenders and losers. After completing this process, review contenders and decide which answer is the correct one.
(9)        If all five answer choices appear to be losers, return to the stimulus and re-evaluate the argument.


Chapter Four: Must Be True Questions
1.        Format
“if true”
“must be true”, “can be properly drawn”, ‘strongly support”, “can be properly inferred”, “best support”.
2.        Approaches
        Do not bring in information from outside the stimulus to answer the questions.
        Fact Test: the correct answer to a Must Be True question can always be proven by referring to the facts stated in the stimulus.
        The Scope of the stimulus helps eliminate one or more of the choices.
        Must Be True question does not contain a conclusion, so we can often predict the occurrence of questions.
3.        Correct answers in must be true question reviewed
Paraphrased answers: restate a portion of the stimulus in different terms.
Answers that are sum of two or more stimulus statement.
4.        Incorrect answers in must be true questions
        Could be true or likely to be true answers
        Exaggerated answers: stretch the information to make a broader statement that is not supported by the stimulus.
        New information answers: information not mentioned explicitly in the stimulus.
     Step1: examine the scope of the argument to make sure the new information does not fall within the sphere of a term or concept in the stimulus.
     Step2: examine the answer to make sure it is not the consequence of combining stimulus elements.
        The Shell Game
Definition: an idea or concept is raised in the stimulus, and then a very similar idea appears in the answer choice, but the idea is changed just enough to be incorrect but still attractive.
        The opposite answer
Frequent in Strengthen and Weaken questions
        The reverse answer
Rearrange those elements to create a new, unsupported statement.
e.g. Many people have some type of security system in their home.
e.g. Some people have many types of security system in their home.

Stimulus Opinions versus Assertions
Author repeats the opinions of others and never makes an assertion of his or her own. When a stimulus contains only the opinions of others, then in as Must Be True question you can eliminate any answer choice that makes a flat assertion without reference to those opinions


Chapter Five: Main Point Questions
Subcategory of Must Be True question
Correct answer: a rephrasing of the main conclusion  of the argument (a the beginning or in the middle of the stimulus)

1.        Format
“…most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument”
“…most accurately expresses the conclusion of…”
“…most accurately restates the main point of the passage”
2.        Two Incorrect Answer Types
        Answers that are true but do not encapsulate the author’s point
        Answers that repeat premises of the argument

Chapter Six: Weaken Questions
1.        Approaches
        The stimulus will contain an argument.
        Focus on the conclusion.
        The information in the stimulus is suspect.
        Weaken questions often yield strong prephrases .
        The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include new information.
2.        Features
(1)        The stem uses the word:
Weaken
Attack
Undermine
Refute
Argue against
Call into question
Cast doubt
Challenge
Damage
Counter
(2)        Stem: “if true…”

3.        How to weaken an argument
(1)        The premises
Rarely
(2)        The conclusion
        The correct answer will undermine the conclusion by showing that the conclusion fails to account for some element or possibility.
        A gap or hole in the argument (direct)
Focus on the conclusion and how the author arrived at the conclusion.
                        
Weakening arguments is to personalize the argument.

4.        Common Weakening Scenarios
        Incomplete information: fail to consider all of the possibilities or rely upon evidence that is incomplete.
        Improper comparison
        Qualified conclusion

5.        Three Incorrect Answer Traps
        Opposite answers
        Shell game answers
        Out of scope answers


Chapter Seven: Cause and Effect Reasoning
1.        Causality
The cause must occur before the effect, and the cause is the “activator” or “ignitor” in the relationship.

2.        How to Recognize Causality
Terms
Caused by
Because of
Responsible for
Reason for
Leads to
Induced by
Promoted by
Determined by
Produced by
Product of
Played a role in
Was a factor in
Is an effect of

3.        Causality in the Conclusion versus Causality in the Premises
The classic mistaken cause and effect reasoning: a causal assertion is made in the conclusion/the conclusion presumes a causal relationship.
        Causal conclusion is flaw.
        Causal premise, then no causal reasoning error exists in the argument.

4.        Situations That Can Lead to Errors of Causality
(1)        One event occurs before another
(2)        Two (or more) events occur at the same time

5.        The Central Assumption of Causal Conclusions
In GMAT, one occurrence caused another, that speaker also assumes that the stated cause is the ONLY  possible cause of the effect and that consequently the stated cause will always produce the effect.

6.        How to Attack a Causal Conclusion
        Find an alternate cause for the stated effect
        Show that even when the cause occurs, the effect does not occur
        Show that although the effect occurs, the cause did not occur
        Show that the stated relationship is reversed (backward)
        Show that a statistical problem exists with the data used to make the causal statement

7.        Diagramming Causality

                                                                                

Chapter Eight: Strengthen, and Assumption Question
1.        Approaches
        The stimulus will contain an argument.
        Focus on the conclusion. Almost all correct answer choices impact the conclusion.
        The information (reasoning errors) in the stimulus is suspect.
        These questions often yield strong prephrases.
        Even if they include new information, the answer choices are accepted as given.

2.        The Difference between Strengthen and Assumption Questions
        Strengthen questions: support the argument in any way possible (from 1% to 10%)
        Assumption questions: identify a statement (unstated premises)  that the argument assumes or supposes.

3.        Strengthen Questions
(1)        Features
Key words: strengthen, support, help and most justifies.
“if true…”
(2)        How to Strengthen an Argument
        Identify the conclusion----strengthen!
        Personalize the argument.
        Look for weakness in the argument (close any gap or hole in the argument ).
        Arguments that contain analogies or use surveys rely upon the validity of those analogies and surveys.
        The correct answer can strengthen the argument just a little or a lot.
(3)        Three Incorrect Answer Traps
Opposite answers (weaken the argument).
Shell Game Answers
Out of Scope Answers

(4)        Causality and Strengthen Questions
        Eliminate any alternate causes for the stated effect
        Show that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs
        Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur
        Eliminate the possibility that the stated cause- and-effect relationship is reversed
        Show that the data used to make the causal statement are accurate, or eliminate possible problems with the data

4.        Assumption Questions
Assumptions are described as what must be true in order for the conclusion to be true.
(1)        Format
“…depends on which of the following assumption”
“… assume that”
“The conclusion is based on which of the following assumptions”
“Which of the following is an assumption made in drawing the conclusion above”
“The conclusion of the argument cannot be true unless which of the following is true”
(2)        The Supporter/Defender Assumption Model
        The supporter assumption, by definition, closes the hole by linking the elements together.
        Defender assumption protects the argument by eliminating ideas that could weaken the argument.
(3)        The Assumption Negation Technique
Logically negate the answer choices under consideration.
The negated answer choice that weakens the argument  will be the correct answer.
Negating Statement
Logical opposite, not polar opposite.
e.g. I went to the beach every day last week.
e.g. Logical opposite: I did not go to the beach every day last week.
e.g. Polar opposite: I did not go to the beach any day last week.
LOGICAL OPPOSITE: opposition construct
Logical opposites: all-------------------not all
Logical opposites: some---------------none
Logical opposite: always--------------not always
Logical opposite: everywhere-------not everywhere
Logical opposite: sometimes--------never
Logical opposite: somewhere-------nowhere
(4)        Three Quirks of Assumption Question Answer Choices
        Watch for answers starting with the phrase “at least one” or “at least some” .
        Avoid answers that claim an idea was the most important consideration for the author (“the primary purpose”, “the top priority”, “the main factor”).
        Watch for the use of “not” or negatives in assumption answer choices .
(5)        Assumptions and Causality
Correct answers’ categories
        Eliminates an alternate cause for the stated effect (the stated cause is the only one cause)
        Shows that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs.
        Shows that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur.
        Eliminates the possibility that the stated cause-and-effect relationship is reversed.
        Shows that the data used to make the causal statement are accurate, or eliminates possible problems with the data.
(6)        Assumption- Fill in the Blank Questions
Blank is placed at the end of the argument.
If fill in the Blank Questions are not the assumption questions, then they are Main Point Questions or Must Be True Questions.
Assumption: “…because________”, “… is the fact that_________”, “…is that______”, “…since_________”
Main point: “therefore,______”; “hence, in the new century, the stability of a nation’s cultural identity will likely_______”; “thus, in many cases, by criminals’ characterization of their situations, ________”


Chapter Nine: Resolve the Paradox Questions
1.        Stimulus Peculiarities
        No conclusion
        Language of contradiction
Signals:
But
However
Yet
Although
Paradoxically
Surprisingly

2.        Question Stem Features
An indication that the answer choices should be accepted as true.
Key words that indicate your task is to resolve a problem.
ACTION        PROBLEM
Resolve        Paradox
Explain        discrepancy
Reconcile        Contradiction
        Conflict
        Puzzle

3.        Answer Types
Active resolution: a possible cause of the situation.
Address the Facts: conform to the specifics of the stimulus.


Chapter Ten: Method of Reasoning and Flaw in the Reasoning Questions
1.        Method of Reasoning
Identify the logical organization of the argument
(1)        Abstract nature:
        Use only the information in the stimulus to prove the correct answer choice.
        Any answer choice that describes an element or a situation that does not occur in the stimulus is incorrect.
(2)        Format:
“The method of the argument is to…”
“The argument proceeds by… ”
“The argument derives its conclusion by…”
“Which of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above…”
“Which of the following is an argumentative strategy employed in the argument…”
“The argument employs which one of the following reasoning techniques…”

2.        Flaw in the Reasoning Questions
(1)        Format:
“Which of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning…”
“The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument…”
“The reasoning above is flawed because it fails to recognize that…”
“The questionable aspect of the reasoning above is that it…”

3.        Techniques in Method and Flaw Questions
(1)        Prephrasing in Method and Flaw Questions
(2)        The Fact Test in Method and Flaw Questions
        If an answer choice describes an event that did not occur in the stimulus, then that answer is incorrect.
        Watch out for answers that are partially true: contain a description of something that happened in the argument but that also contain additional things that did not occur.
(3)        Stimulus Notes
Method question: invalid/valid argument.
Flaw question: invalid argument.
(4)        Incorrect Answers in Method and Flaw Questions
New element answers
Half right, half wrong answers
Exaggerated  answers
The opposite answers
The reverse answers

4.        Method of Reasoning- Bolded Argument Part Questions
Rare subset of Method of Reasoning questions
“…plays which one of the following roles in the argument”
“…the two BOLDFACE portions play which of the following roles”
Method-AP Stimulus Structure
Counter-premises------------Conclusion---------sub-conclusion

Chapter Eleven: Parallel Reasoning Questions
1.        Question Stem Format
“…is most closely parallel in its reasoning to the reasoning in the argument above”
“….most similar to logical features /in its pattern of reasoning…”
2.        Parallel Flaw Questions
Parallel reasoning questions: contain flawed reasoning
3.        The Peril of Abstraction
Using symbols that directly represent elements in the stimulus
4.        Abstract Fact Test
Elements not need to be parallel:
        Topic of stimulus (irrelevant)
        The order of presentation of the premises and conclusion in the stimulus (irrelevant)
Need to be PARALLEL:
        The method of reasoning
        The validity of the argument
        The conclusion: certainty level/intent of conclusion
        Answers that have identical wording to the conclusion are Contenders (controlling modifiers: must, could, many, some, never)
        Do not eliminate answers just because the wording is not identical
        The presence of a negative term in the stimulus is not grounds for dismissing the answers when the stimulus has positive language, and vice versa.
        The premises: the same wording rules.
Evaluate answers
Match the method of reasoning
Match the conclusion
Match the premises
Match the validity of the argument
(summarize the action in the argument)

Chapter Twelve: Numbers and Percentages
1.        Widely-held misconceptions
        Increasing percentages automatically lead to increasing numbers.
        Decreasing percentages automatically lead to decreasing numbers.
        Increasing numbers automatically lead to increasing percentages.
        Decreasing numbers automatically lead to decreasing percentages.
        Large numbers automatically mean large percentages, and small numbers automatically mean small percentages.
        Large percentages automatically mean large numbers, and small percentages automatically mean small numbers.
Key words to numerical ideas:
Amount
Quantity
Sum
Total
Count
Tally
Key words to percentage ideas:
Percent
Proportion
Fraction
Ratio
Incidence
Likelihood
Probability
Segment
Share

2.        Markets and Market Share
Regardless of the size of a market and even though the total amount of the market can shift, the total market share must always add up to 100%.


Chapter Thirteen: Evaluate the Argument Questions
Correct answers: decide whether the argument is good or bad .

1.        Features
        The information in the stimulus is suspect, so we should search for the reasoning errors.
        The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include new information.

2.        Question Stem Format
“…would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument”
“… would be most important to an evaluation of the skeptics’ position”
“…would be most important to know in evaluating the hypothesis”
“… would be most relevant to investigate in evaluating the conclusion…”
“…would be most helpful to know in order to judge whether…”

3.        The Variance Test

linchristine

謝謝分享~

xiazimou

感谢感谢~~

kath1991

还是没见着密码呀楼主