[分享]AWA总结（分类，模板，素材）（4）

IORIYAGAMI

三、例子和其他有用的东东
Success
Bill Gates
When Bill Gates made his decision to drop out from Harvard, he did not care too much of the result. Gates entered Harvard in 1973, and dropped out two years later when he and Allen started the engine of Microsoft. Many people did not understand why Gates gave up such a good opportunity to study in the world’s No.1 University. However, with size comes power, Microsoft dominates the PC market with its operating systems, such as MS-DOS and Windows. Now, Microsoft becomes the biggest software company in the world and Bill Gates becomes the richest man in the world.
We can learn from the experience of the great inventor Thomas Alva Edison that sometimes a series of apparent failures is really a precursor to success. The voluminous personal papers of Edison reveal that his inventions typically did not spring to life in a flash of inspiration but evolved slowly from previous woks.
Mother Teresa
Mother Teresa, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, dedicated the majority of her life to helping the poorest of the poor in India, thus gaining her the name "Saint of the Gutters." The devotion towards the poor won her respect throughout the world and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979. She founded an order of nuns called the Missionaries of Charity in Calcutta, India dedicated to serving the poor. Almost 50 years later, the Missionaries of Charity have grown from 12 sisters in India to over 3,000 in 517 missions throughout 100 countries worldwide.
Lady Diana Spencer, Princess of Whales, is remembered and respected by people all over the world more for her beauty, kindness, humanity and charitable activities than for her technical skills.
Mandela
Mandela, the South African black political leader and former president, was awarded 1993 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to antiracism and antiapartheid. Nelson Mandela is one of the great moral and political leaders of our time: an international hero whose lifelong dedication to the fight against racial oppression in South Africa won him the Nobel Peace Prize and the presidency of his country. Since his triumphant release in 1990 from more than a quarter-century of imprisonment, Mandela has been at the centre of the most compelling and inspiring political drama in the world. As president of the African National Congress and head of South Africa's antiapartheid movement, he was instrumental in moving the nation toward multiracial government and majority rule. He is revered everywhere as a vital force in the fight for human rights and racial equality.
Beethoven
Beethoven, the German Composer, began to lose his hearing in 1801 and was entirely deaf by 1819. However, this obstacle could not keep him from becoming one of the most famous and prolific composers in art history. His music, including 9 symphonies, 5 piano concertos, several senates and so on, formes a transition from classical to romantic composition.
Individual, Companies,Leadership and Internal control
Mr. Lesson was accused of losing 1.3 billon dollars as a result of a risky derivative investment with the potential of a 27-billon gain. The collapse of Barings Bank in 1995 has been one of the most spectacular events in the banking world in recent years. Banks solvency and liquidity can be significantly threatened if speculative trading in financial derivatives is guided by a lack of adequate internal and external controls. There is evidence that such reasons are responsible for the failure of Barings in February 1995.
Recently, many multi-national companies, such as Cisco and Yahoo, stimulate the employees’ morale by offering stock options to their employees. Stock option provides a chance for employees to become the shareholders of the company. As the result, the interest and profit of the company is tightly connected with the employees’ interest and income.
Many firms adopt “Profit-Related-Pay” contracts (PRP contracts) and pay wages at levels that vary with firms’ profits. Many studies suggest that firms adopting PRP contracts show productivity per worker higher than that of their competitors who used more traditional contracts. The reason behind is that PRP contracts greatly change individual workers’ relationships to the firm, connecting their interest with firms’ interest.
The greater the division of labor in an economy, the greater the need for communication and coordination. This is because increased division of labor entails a larger number of specialized producers, which results in a greater number of disruptions of supply and production.
An employer looking for long-term employees may be better served by hiring applicants with broad background. By way of their more general education, these applicants have acquired a variety of general and transferable skills. They may be more suitable than their business-background colleagues to solve general management problems, deal with business associates from different cultures and view issues at a variety of aspects. In general, the employees with broad background can accustom to changes more quickly than their business-majored colleagues.
Daimler Chrysler, one of the most successful automobile companies in the world, contributes significantly to the local employment of Stuttgart, Germany.
Philip Morris, the largest tobacco company in the world, has been sued by government and many other groups for producing products that are harmful to health. The fines and legal fees that have resulted from the legal attacks against the company have costed the company substantial amounts of money.
Bayer, one of the largest pharmaceutic companies in the world, announced that the company would cease production of one of its major products, because of the hazardous ingredients it contained. By doing so, the company suffers great loss on profitability, but gains strong public support and understanding, which can contribute to the long-term success of the company.
Mitsubishi Motors had concealed significant defects in the break system of Pajero, one of the company’s major products, before apologized to public. Hundreds of car accidents were directly caused by the break error. Thus, the company suffered a great goods return, losing not only the market share but also the confidence of consumers.
Henry Ford’s factory was so efficient that by 1926 a new “model-T” cost only $310, one-third the price of the original 1908 model.
Discriminating services may cause misunderstanding and unpleasant result. The best example is Toshiba, one of the largest Japanese companies. In 2000, the Company announced that among notebook computers it produced, one model had serious defect. Users in North America could choose either replacements with an upgraded model or full refund. However, no such offer for users in China. Chinese users were outrage at the company’s discrimination and refused to use any of Toshiba’s notebook computers. What the company lost is not only the temporary revenue but also the consumer’s confidence, which contribute to the long-term success of the company.
Compared with government officers, private corporation managers must pay more attention to efficiency and effectiveness of their decisions. Normally, maximizing profitability is not the primary goal of government owned enterprises and governmental planning, so that many unrealistic decisions may be resulted. It is the hidden reason that many government owned enterprises become profitable after the privatisations.
Traditionally, the first firm to commercialise a new technology has benefited from unique opportunity to shape product definitions, forcing followers to adapt to a standard or invest in an unproven alternative. Today, however, the largest payoffs may go to companies that lead in developing integrated approaches for successful mass production and distribution. For example, SEGA, producer of Saturn, was the first company to develop home video game machine commercially, but Sony Entertainment INC., producer of Play Station, proved to be more successful at forming strategic alliance with other producers and distributors to manufacture and market its hardware and software. Because consumers had more choices on Play Station’s games, they seldom bought SEGA Saturn. By the end of the 1990’s, Play Station dominated the home video game market while SEGA Saturn was no longer in production.
The financial crash of October 1987 and the Asia Economic Crisis in 1998 demonstrate that the world’s capital markets are more closely integrated than ever before and that events in one part of the global village may be transmitted to the rest of the village—almost instantaneously.
The fact that in many corporations employees are being replaced by automated equipment in order to save money does not mean our lives are becoming worse. After all, it is the automation that boosts the industrial revolution, which in turn, creates thousands of hundreds more positions than in the past. If the corporations cannot improve its profitability, many more people will lost their jobs ultimately.
As the economic role of multinational, global corporations expands, the international economic environment will be shaped increasingly not by governments or international institutions, but by the interaction between governments and global corporations.
Traditionally, people think that companies are set up for making profit, not for saving our planet. Today, however, more and more multinational companies adopt the Corporate Social Responsibility Policy (CSR policy). These companies pay more attention to the social problems, from employee minimum wage to environment issues. On the one hand, these companies do not want people to protest in front of the office buildings; on the other hand, a good public image does help the companies promote their products to consumers.
The interview is an essential part of a successful firing program because with it, job applicants who have personalities that are unsuited to the requirements of the job will be eliminated from consideration.
Architecture
The Potala Palace is Tibet’s cardinal landmark and a structure that deserves a place as one of the wonders of eastern architecture. The Potala palace was built by Songtsen Gampo, the first king of Tibet, in the 7th century. The roof and many other parts of the Palace were decorated by pure gold, which was contributed by the Buddhist in Tibet. Since its construction, the Potala Palace has been the home of each successive Dalai Lamas, the religious leader of Tibet. This building dedicates not only to religious belief but also to the accommodation place—over a thousand Lamas live in it today. Shaped by the people of Tibet, the Potala Palace has a far-reaching influence on the Tibetan’s religion as well as every day lives.
Besides religious impact, buildings represent our intellectual and business behavior. Take Bank of China Tower as an example. It is located at No. 1 Garden Road, central Hong Kong. The tower itself is 315 meters high, and the unique style and spectacular appearance has made it one of the most distinguished buildings in the world. The BOC tower is a masterpiece of the world famous American-Chinese architect Mr. I.M.Pei. The inspiration of the design is derived from the elegant poise of bamboo. Now, the BOC tower is a symbolic of strength, vitality and growth, representing also the Bank’s commitment to the rapid development of Hong Kong and to servicing the community. The BOC tower has not only recorded a glorious page in the construction history of Hong Kong but also highlighted the new phases of expansion in Hong Kong.
Constructed in the Victory Age, the Big Bell is now the biggest bell in the world and is still one of the important parts of the English lives.
Energy
OPEC is one of the best examples. OPEC, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, is an international organization of eleven developing countries that are heavily reliant on oil revenues as their main source of income. Since oil revenues are so vital for the economic development of these nations, they aim to bring stability and harmony to the oil market by adjusting their oil output to help ensure a balance between supply and demand. In the long run, the stabilized out-put help to cease the problem of over-refining and over utilization of oil energy.
Nowadays, developed countries already masters the technology of using more efficiency and economical energy resources, such as water and solar energy, while the traditional and wasted energy still dominates in the developing countries. International cooperation enables the technology transfer between developed countries and developing countries and devotes to the benefit of entire human beings. A worldwide leader can speed up the decision-making progress and enhance the solidarity among the member countries.
Children
The immaturity of young children may deter them from making moral discrimination about harmful actions committed against or others. Many scientific research prove that young children do not take into account the intentions of a person committing accidental or deliberate harm and that it is difficult for young children to differentiate between unforeseeable and foreseeable, and thus preventable harm.
Television programs and movies that depict violence among teenagers are extremely popular. Given how influential these media are, we have good reason to believe that these depictions cause young people to engage in violent behavior. Hence, depictions of violence among teenagers should be prohibited from movies and television programs, if only in those programs and movies promoted to young audiences.
Others
It took Columbus, the Italian explorer in the service of Spain who determined that the earth is round, over 3 months to sail from Europe to America. However, we can do so by air within one day.
Rabbi Meir, a second-century scholar, admonished his disciples to look not at the pitcher but as its contents because, he stated “Many a new pitcher has been found to be full of old wine.” This was his way of emphasizing the importance of the distinction between form and idea, and of stressing that the integrity of an idea is more important than the form of its expression.
Old sayings
Get new insights through reviewing old materials---Confucius
Get twice the result with half the effort
Kill two birds with one stone.
Tough time does not last long, but tough people do
Don’t part with your illusions. When they are gone you may still exist, but you have ceased to live.Mark Twain 不要放弃你的幻想。当幻想没有了以后，你还可以生存，但是你虽生犹死。
Man errs so long as strives.Johann Wolfgang Goethe,German poet and dramatist 人只要奋斗就会犯错误。
Where there is a will, there is a way.Thomas Edison 有志者，事竟成。
Character cannot be developed in ease and quiet. Only through experience of trial and suffering can the soul be strengthened, vision cleared, ambition inspired, and success achieved.Helen Keller 要使性格有所发展并非简单之事，只有通过艰难和困苦的磨练才能使心灵强化，视野开阔，雄心振奋，从而达到成功的目的。
Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful.William Shakespeare 美德是勇敢的，善良从来无所畏惧。
Histories make men wise; poems witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.Francis Bacon 历史使人明智；诗词使人灵秀；数学使人周密；自然哲学使人深邃；伦理使人庄重；逻辑修辞学使人善辩。
Never too old to learn.Thomas Middleton, British writer 活到老学到老。
The more you study, the more you will find yourself ignorant.Rene Descartes, French philosopher/mathematician 学，然后知不足。
All happy families are like one another; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.Leo Tolstoy, Russian writer 所有幸福的家庭都十分相似；而每个不幸的家庭各有自不幸。
Experience is the father of wisdom and memory the mother.Charles BernardFrench philosopher 经验是智慧之父，记忆是智慧之母。
Knowledge is power.Francis Bacon 知识就是力量。
Experience is not what happens to a man; it is what a man does with what happens to him.Aldous Leonard HuxleyAmerican writer 经验不会从天降；经验只有通过实践才能获得。
I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.Voltaire, French writer 我不同意你说的话，但是我愿意誓死捍卫你说话的权利。
Plato is dear to me, but dearer still is truth.Aristotle, Ancient Greek philosopher 吾爱吾师，吾更爱真理。
Imagination is more important than knowledge.Albert Einstein 想象力比知识更为重要。
Do not, for one repulse, give up the purpose that you resolved to effect.William Shakespeare 不要只因一次失败，就放弃你原来决心想达到的目的。
I want to bring out the secrets of nature and apply them for the happiness of man. I don’t know of any better service to offer for the short time we are in the world.Thomas Edison 我想揭示大自然的秘密，用来造福人类。认为，在我们的短暂一生中，最好的贡献莫过于此了。
It is at our mother’s knee that we acquire our noblest and truest and highest ideals, but there is seldom any money in them.Mark Twain 就是在我们母亲的膝上，我们获得了我们的最高尚、最真诚和最远大的理想，但是里面很少有任何金钱。
The ideals which have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage to face life cheerfully have been kindness, beauty and truth.Albert Einstein 有些理想曾为我引过道路，并不断给我新的勇气以欣然面对人生，那些理想就是—真、善、美。
The only limit to our realization of tomorrow will be our doubts of today.Franklin Roosevelt 实现明天理想的唯一障碍是今天的疑虑。
If you have great talents, industry will improve them; if you have but moderate abilities, industry will supply their deficiency.Joshuas Reynolds, American female essayist 如果你很有天赋，勤勉会使其更加完善；如果你能力一般，勤勉会补足其缺陷。
My fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.John Kennedy 美国同胞们，不要问国家能为你们做些什么，而要问你们能为国家做些什么。全世界的公民们，不要问美国将为你们做些什么，而要问我们共同能为人类的自由做些什么。
Achievement provides the only real pleasure in life.Thomas Edison 有所成就是人生唯一的真正的乐趣。
Success covers a multitude of blunders.George Bernard Shaw 成功由大量的失误铸成。
You have to believe in yourself. That’s the secret of success.Charles Chaplin 人必须相信自己，这是成功的秘诀。
A light heart lives long.William Shakespeare 豁达者长寿。
Bitter pills may have blessed effects.Anonymous 良药苦口利于病。
Diseases of the soul are more dangerous than those of the body. M.T. Cicero,Ancient Roman orator and statesman 心灵上的疾病比身体上的疾病更危险。
The first wealth is health.Ralph Waldo Emerson, American thinker 健康是人生第一财富。
All the splendor in the world is not worth a good friend.Voltaire, French thinker 人世间所有的荣华富贵不如一个好朋友。
Beggars do not envy millionaires, though of course they will envy other beggars who are more successful.Bertrand Russell 乞丐并不羡慕百万富翁，尽管他们一定会羡慕比他们乞讨得多的乞丐。
It is good to have money to buy things that money can buy, but it is better not to lose things money cannot buy.George H Lorimer, American journalist 有钱去买能买得到的东西当然不错，但是不丢失用金钱买不到的东西更好。
Money is a good servant and a bad master.Francis Bacon 金钱是善仆，也是恶主。
No country, however rich, can afford the waste of its human resources.Frankin Roosevelt 任何一个国家，不管它多么富裕，都浪费不起人力资源。
A contented mind is the greatest blessing a man enjoy in this world.Joseph Addison, American writer 知足是人生在世最大的幸事。
The supreme happiness of life is the conviction that we are loved.Vitor Hugo 生活中最大的幸福是坚信有人爱我们。
Do you love life? Then do not squander time; for that’s the stuff life is made of.Benjamin Franklin 你热爱生命吗？那么，别浪费时间，因为生命是由时间组成的。
Never leave that until tomorrow, which you can do today. Benjamin Franklin 今天的事不要拖到明天。
The time of life is short, to spend that shortness basely, it would be too long.William Shakespeare 人生苦短，若虚度年华，则短暂的人生就太长了。
To choose time is to save time. Francis Bacon 合理安排时间是节约时间。
Liberty is the only thing you cannot have unless you give it to others.William A. White, American journalist 自由就是这样的东西，不给予别人，你自己也无法得到。
Liberty, when it begins to take root, is a plant of rapid growth. George Washington 自由一旦生根，便是株迅猛生长的植物。
Smokers and nonsmokers cannot be equally free in the same railway carriage.George Bernard Shaw 吸烟者和不吸烟者在同一节车厢里无法享受同样的自由。
A good laugh is sunshine in a house.William Makepeace Thackeray,British novelist 令人愉快的欢笑是房间里的阳光。
He that travels far knows much.John Ray, British scientist 远行者见闻多。
I never consider ease and joyfulness as the purpose of life itself.Albert Einstein 我从来不认为安逸和欢乐就是生活本身的目的。
In almost every face and every person, they may discover fine feathers and defects, good and bad qualities. Benjamin Franklin 人各有其面，有优缺点，有长短处。
The principal thing in this world is to keep one’s soul aloft. Flaubert 人生在世首要大事是保持灵魂的高尚。
Cultivation to the mind is as necessary as food for the body.Cicero, Ancient Roman statesman and orator 学习对于头脑，如同食物对于身体一样不可缺少。
My philosophy of life is work.Thomas Alva Edison 我的人生哲学就是工作。
Work banishes those three great evils: boredom, vice, and poverty.Voltaire, French philosopher 工作撵跑三个魔鬼：无聊，堕落和贫穷。
A friend is, as it were, a second self.Cicero 可以说，朋友是另一个自我。
Friendship is an essential ingredient in the making of a healthful, rewarding life. Ralph Waldo EmersonAmerican thinker 友谊是使人的一生健康而有意义所不可缺少的组成部分。
Friendship is both a source of pleasure and a component of good health.Ralph Waldo Emerson 友谊既是快乐之源泉，又是健康之要素。
Mistakes are an essential part of education.Bertrand Russell, British philosopher 从错误中吸取教训是教育极为重要的一部分。
Initiative is doing the right thing without being told.Elbert Hubbard, American writer 主动性是指在没有人告诉你的情况下去做合适的事情。
Strong reasons make strong actions.William Shakespeare 强有力的理由产生强有力的行动。
There is no time like the present.Tobias George SmallettBritish novelist 时不待我，没有比现在更宝贵的了。
Although the world is full of suffering, it is full also of the overcoming of it.Hellen Keller, American writer 虽然世界多苦难，但是苦难总是能战胜的。
To be proud of learning is the greatest ignorance.Jereny Taylor, American composer 以学识自傲是最大的无知。
A friendship founded on business is better than business founded on friendship.John D. Rockerfeller, American businessman 建立在商务基础上的友谊胜过建立在友谊基础上的商务。
No society can make a perpetual constitution, or even a perpetual law.Thomas Jefferson, American president 没有哪个社会可以制订一部永远适用的宪法，甚至一条永远适用的法律。
A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops. H. B. Adams, American historian 教师的影响是永恒的；无法估计他的影响会有多深远。
Education is a progressive discovery of our ignorance. Durant, American historian 教育是一个逐步发现自己无知的过程。
Example is always more efficacious than precept.Samuel Johnson British writer and critic 身教胜于言教。

作文5。5心经
我七月底考的。但刚刚收到ETS寄来的作文成绩，5.5分。下面介绍一下我的经验，可以节约你们不少时间。
首先认为：孙远说每篇文章的提纲都要背，要熟悉，我觉得实在没有必要，一来根本记不住，二来工作量太大。如果时间实在富有得不行还差不多。这些时间放在别的地方效果更好。
一、自己只是仔细归纳一下近三个月作文考到的题。我认为：与其将所有的作文题过一遍，不如将这些近期考过的题过三遍。我很细心的总结了我考前三个月的作文题，越到后来重复率越大，没有出过这个范围。所以我索性别的题看都没看。（我总结的作文题在八月初的机经里已经贴出来了，对现在的考生可能用处不大）
二、不用背提纲，但要做到：1）见到题目，能立即反应出大概从哪三点切入；2）三个论点的例子是什么，包括：人名、地名、公司名、名言的正确表述；没有例子的，一定要在考前充实一些例子。例子一写，字数一下就上去了3）一定要举一返三。有很多作文题题目不同，但实际上说的都是一个问题，把类似的放在一起复习，复习了一个等于复习了好几个。我记得的就有两个作文题提到了“道德标准”。还有什么“从建筑物可以了解到社会”这个和“从广告可以了解到社会”大同小异。没什么好害怕的。
三、考前五天总结出三个模板，arguement一个，issue两个，包括：一个两方对立式（on the one hand, on the other hand），一个一种观点式（agree or disagree）。没必要太早总结出模板来。我在模板总结出来后，半个小时内issue轻松搞定400字，argue500字。在考试过程中都多出十分钟检查。在剩下的五天里别忘了每天把模板默写一篇，再熟悉也一定要逼自己写在纸上。在心中回想和在纸上写效果是不一样的。
四、把机经里的题目比较难写的看看范文（好些的范文都不用看。反正你看了也记不住），把实在难写的找出来，实际练习一下（我只各练了五篇，还考中一篇写过的）。这个任务并不难，因为反正你最后几天要做模考的，把这几篇算作模考的题目好了。
五、如果有时间，最好将所有作文题的题目看一遍，确认一下理解题意，没有不认识的生词。这不花多少时间，其实意义不大，但万一实在运气太背，不至于太心慌。
六、真正考试的时候先写开头，再写论点的头两点，再写结论。如果时间有多，再把论点的第三点补充一下。决窍在于：时间要不够，这还是一篇完整的作文。不会出现作文没有完成的情况。即使真的没有时间再去写论点的第三点，其实也够了。因为通常两点就已经能把问题说得很清楚了。还有，千万别在一个论点上流连，这样可能导致你没有时间写别的内容。
提醒：如果平时根本没有练习过写作的最好还是多花点时间。我平时工作中写英语写得比较多。所以写作没有太大问题。至于真正的GMAT作文，除了考前正正经经地验过八篇外，上新东方之前好玩似的没有章法的练过二十多篇issue，觉得不好写，言之无物，后来便放圣诞节了。我觉得这种练习没用，有效果的还是在模板出来以后。
如有人对我的模板感兴趣，可发信给我xuan_fu@idgvc.com.cn。不过，我觉得价值不大。我的模板肯定和你们每个人总结出来的一样。还是自己总结的东西记忆深刻

一、 Prep Tips
1. 熟悉题库里的所有题目，弄懂每个词、每句话，对题中的逻辑错误了如指掌。
2. 掌握开头、结尾的模式。
3. 理解、背诵写作提纲。
4. 背诵基本句型。
5. 多多练习写作。
二、 开头句式
略
三、 Cracking Surveys
1. What Procedure was used in conducting the survey? #117
2. How large was the Sample? #26
3. Are the statistics complete? #99 #132
4. Do the statistics make a difference? #105
5. When was the survey conducted? #94
6. Who conducted the survey? #12
7. Are the statistics misleadingly precise or too vague?
数据是否“精确”得无法获得？（与题库无关）
Too vague: many/majority/百分比无基数 #116
8. What questions will be asked? （误导）#8
a. Loaded Questions （有暗示的问题）
“如果中国的未来依赖于国企的繁荣，那我们是否该将国企私有化？”
b. Complex Questions（复合型问题）
“为了找到一个理想的结婚伴侣，你希望尝试交往几个异性朋友呢？”
c. False Dilema （虚假的非此即彼选项）
“解决台湾问题应该采取空中打击还是抢滩登陆？”（实际上还有其他选择）
9. Are the respondents forthright? （被访者是否如实回答了问题）（与题库无关）
四、 Cracking Logical Fallacies:
1. 论据不足就下结论 Hasty Generalization/Neglect of Relevant Evidence #118 #96
2. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc (After this, therefore because of this)
即时序性因果错误，仅因A发生于B之前，就推定A导致B。#108
3. Concurrence（同时性逻辑错误，仅因两者同时发生，就推定有因果关系。）#27
4. Causal oversimplification #106
即因果关系简单化，对复杂的问题给予过于简单的回答。
5. False analogy（不考虑背景差异的错误类比）#124
6. Incomplete or selective comparison #36
7. Composition（整体与部分关系的逻辑错误）#74
对于整体来说是正确的判断，对于其组成部分却不一定适用；反之亦然。
8. Begging the question/Circular reasoning #112
把有待证实的关键假设当作以被证明的事实来使用。
如：她对我说她爱我。她说的是真话，因为没有人会对自己所爱的人撒谎。
9. False or questionable authority #68
10. Equivocation #35
模棱两可，同一概念在上下文中的含义不一致。
11. False dilemma（参见Cracking Survey的相关部分）
12. Non sequitur（非因果关系）
13. Straw argument/Straw man argument
树立一个很容易攻击的靶子，而回避实质性的问题或要害问题。
将对方未讲的话强加于对方然后进行批驳。
14. Ad hominem(Personal attack)
15. Red herring（转移注意力）
16. Slippery slope
如：你不来上我的课——你的作文考不好——你出不了国——你的人生是个彻底的失败，即从你不来上我的课推出你的人生是个彻底的失败这个结论。
（以上12~16在题库中未涉及）
五、 正文部分的写作
一般写两个成熟的段落即可，对于复杂的题目可以写三段，最多四段（一般不用，段数太多每段都很难写完整）。
正文每段开头都应该是清楚、明确的主题句，或指出逻辑错误类型，或说arguer错误地假设了什么(The arguer unfairly assumes that...)。
1. 句型
略
2. 正文的论证方法
1) 推测
句型
It is likely/possible that...
It is equally possible that...
It is unlikely/impossible that...
Perhaps/Possibly,...
One/Another possibility is that...
May/Might...
p.108第三段
2) 假设
If从句
... , if so/in this case, ...
Even if...
Granted that..., 从句(We cannot insure/assume that)
Unless...
p.117最后一段 p.230#3
六、 结尾段落的写作
p.69 p.71 p.72
第一句：说明作者没能支持自己的结论；第二、三句：说明作者可以从正文主题句所表明的几个方面加强原论证（不要重复正文主题句的老话，要换种说法）。
一、 ISSUE的特点：
1. 题目是有争议的话题，不是简单的yes或no的问题，不是简单的“喜欢哪个”的问题。#87；p.6例文
2. 提倡创造性，有独到视角。高分关键：思想深度/语言完美。低分：模式化、雷同/观点浅薄/语法错误。建议：不要背范文/下苦功夫提高语言水平/选取立场时要注意考虑在哪个观点上有发挥的余地，而不要考虑谁对谁错。
二、 Prep Tips
1. 内容上：
1) 有清晰的立场
2) 有大量的证据，正文部分的分析要用事实（数据、事例、名人名言、故事、亲身经历等）说话。
2. 结构上：
文章开头、正文、结尾清楚
长度比例：正文>开头+结尾
头尾各一段，正文三段，共五段
“让步”的问题
3. 论证上：
策略：
逻辑：避免过于绝对、武断
不用：undoubtedly/always/certainly/I strongly hold/I firmly believe
可用：may/to a large degree
4. 语言上：
1) 承上启下（过渡）
段与段之间/段落内部——用信号词（见教材）
2) 句式变换
3) 词汇多样性
4) 语法错误尽量少（十个以内小错误不会影响拿五分）
5) 标点（见教材）
6) 语言与证据：用好“工具箱”
三、 写作步骤（六步）p.238 限时训练 自查清单
四、 “头脑风暴”
在草稿纸上进行：
☆ 自由联想（练习时）
☆ 定向联想（考试时）
有个定向的立场 #89
寻找突破口：
1. 政治、经济、文化、社会
2. 衣食住行（常识）
3. 物质、精神
4. 个人、社会
5. 古今中外
☆ 快速纪录
☆ 三级结构：立场-->观点-->例子（详见笔记）
五、 Case Study p.63
六、 开头模式：
1. 提问——回答——立场
排比结构
人称问题：正文部分不要过多使用I/You/You see/You can imagine
七、 典型立场
1. 完全赞同Agree #15
#46#47#74#105#106#108#110#119#129
2. 完全反对Disagree #13
#23#28#31#109#117#120
3. 有保留地赞同Agree with Concession #51
#57#107#111#112#114
4. 有保留地反对Disagree with Concession #101
5. 具体问题具体分析Refuse to Take a Side
#44#69#94#104#118
八、 文章结构：
1. 正文三段：support1-support2-support3
p.83例13（#33）
2. 正文三段：support1-support2-concession
或concession-support1-support2
注意过渡：
3. 正文三段：side A support1-side A support2-side B support1
正文四段：
side A support1-side A support2-side B support1-side B support2
正文两段：side A support-side B support
p.79例9（#23）p.88例20（#62）
另：p.220~221练习。
九、 Issue开头模式及写法：(p.211~213)
1. 背景描述+立场申明p.73.#1
p.12.#3
2. 陈述相互冲突的观点+表明立场
p.96-29.(#86)
3. 问句+典型回答（题目中的基本观点）+自己的立场 p.64;p.65
4. 问句+立场
5. 题目观点+做出回答（提出立场）p.90-22.(#70)
p.211-6 p.212-19
6. 申明立场+简要说明理由 p.92-24
7. 格言、谚语或引语+自己立场God helps those who help themselves.
十、 正文部分的论证技巧和基本策略：
1. 例证 p.92-24 (#74)
p.14 #16不太好写
2. 故事、案例、个人经历 p.93-25 (#77)
Topic Sentence+过渡句
数据
3. 权威
4. 类比 p.75-4 (#15)
p.13 #10（较难）
5. 演绎：大前提—小前提—结论 p.12 #5 p.354-15
“善用工具箱”
十一、结尾部分的模式：
1. 重申自己的立场 p.81-10 (#24) p.215
2. 重申立场+总结理由 p.85-15 (#37)
3. 重申立场+引申扩展（强调立场的重要性或建议读者采取什么行动或展望未来）
p.215-3~19（18.19属于第一种结尾模式）
十二、注意（Issue和Argument都适用）：别照搬整篇范文/背诵模式
p.12 #4较难

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