LEO语法知识点笔记整理

Leo19910203

09篇:托福长难句规律总结之for的用法

Hello学弟学妹们，这次准备写for的一些相关用法，它时而可作介词，时而又可用作连词，不同的词性意味着会有不同的表达意义以及后面接不同的结构，我把在托福文章中见到的for的用法逐渐积累到一起，打算今天写在分享笔记中，希望能给小伙伴们带来一些帮助。老样子，先给出本节知识点的讲解框架，方便大家梳理要点?～

1.for的用法
1.1for的词性及作用
1.2for的具体用法
2.含有for的长难句分析
3.含有for的托福题目分析

1.for的用法
1.1for的词性及作用
1）介词（Prep.）
a.表示目的
b.表示对象
c.表示去向
d.表示距离
e.表示时间
f.表示原因
2）连词（Conj.）
a.表示原因（最常见）
1.2for的具体用法
1）Prep.介词
表示目的
e.g.He went out for a walk.
      He does everything only for money.
表示对象
e.g.What did you get for your birthday?
       I’ve got a present for you.
表示去向
e.g.Is this train for Shanghai?  
      My father has left for work.
表示距离
e.g.We have stayed here for two months.
       For miles and miles we saw nothing but trees.
表示时间
e.g.I’ve invited them for 9 o’clock.
      We’ve made an appointment for October 18th.
表示原因
e.g.We could hardly see for the mist.
       I 'm sorry for what I have done.
2）Conj.连词
表示原因
e.g.It must have rained last night, for the ground is wet.
      Kuntta knew day broke, for he heard the birds singing.

2.含有for的长难句分析
E.g 1.In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet itspurpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them——evenwhile building materials have changed dramatically.

【分析】In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet itspurpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them——even while building materials have changed dramatically.
画阴影的部分是for接名词而构成的介词短语，表目的，译为“为了使建筑结构的尺寸和强度满足其用途”。

此句主干：Architecture employs methods of support.
此句从句：because they are based on physical laws是由because所引导的状语从句。
                 that have changed little是由that所引导的定语从句。since people
                 first discovered them是由since所引导的状语从句。while building materials
                 have changed dramatically是由while所引导的状语从句。
此句翻译：为了使建筑结构的尺寸和强度满足其用途，建筑学采用了一些支撑方法，由于这
                 些方法是基于物理规律，所以自从人们第一次发现这些方法以来，它们的变化
                 不大，即使建筑材料也发生了巨大的变化。

E.g 2.As a result，claims (that eating a diet consisting entirely of organically grown foods prevents or cures disease or provides other benefits to health) have become widely publicized and form the basis for folklore.

【分析】As a result，claims (that eating a diet consisting entirely of organically grown foods prevents or cures disease or provides other benefits to health) have become widely publicized and form the basis for folklore.
画阴影的部分是for接名词而构成的介词短语，表对象，译为“成为民间传说的基础”。

此句主干：Claims have become widely publicized and form the basis.
此句从句：that eating a diet consisting entirely of organically grown foods prevents
                 or cures disease or provides other benefits to health是由that所引导的名词性
                 从句。
此句翻译：因此，声称（食用完全由有机食品构成的饮食预防或治疗疾病或提供其他健康
                 益处）已得到广泛宣传，并成为民间传说的基础。

E.g 3.Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters of the period, for it appealed to their liking for mystery, their belief in art for art’s sake, a nineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather than because it may have some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form and content.

【分析】Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters of the period, for it appealed to their liking for mystery, their belief in art for art’s sake, a nineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather than because it may have some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form and content.
画阴影的部分有两处，第一处是for接完整句引导的状语从句，表原因，译为“因为它迎合
了他们对神秘感的喜好”。第二处是for接名词而构成的介词短语，表对象，“他们对为艺
术而艺术的信仰”。

此句主干：Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters
                 of the period.
此句从句：for it appealed to their liking for mystery是for所引导的状语从句。that
                 art is valuable in itself是that所引导的名词性从句。because it may have
                 some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form
                 and content是because所引导的状语从句。
此句翻译：她的舞蹈也吸引了当时法国诗人和画家的注意。因为它迎合了他们对神秘感的
                 喜好，他们对为艺术而艺术的信仰，一种19世纪的观念，即艺术本身是有价
                 值的，而不是因为它可能有一些道德或教育上的好处，以及他们将形式和内容
                 结合起来的努力。

3.含有for的托福题目分析

【例题1】which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A.The high cost to investors of developing trade by sea between East and West indicates the great size of the profits that such trade could produce.B.The profits that could be created by sea trade between East and West were immense compared with the investment required to develop such trade.C.The increase in commercial activity by using sea routes reflects the importance trade between East and West had for investors seeking great profits.D.Because people made large investments in sea commerce between East and West. They expected to make immense profits.

【原文】The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create. Spices were the most sought-after commodities. Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China.（摘自TPO17/Passage1）

【句子分析】选项C中画黄色阴影部分的是for接名词构成的介词短语，表对象，译为“为投资者寻求巨大的利润”。
【例题分析】1）题干问的是“下面哪一个句子最能表达出文段中突出的句子中的基本信息？不正确的选择会改变重要的意义或遗漏基本信息。”2）原句的意思是“开始海上商业扩张所需的投资规模之大，反映了这种东西方贸易所能创造的巨大利润”。3）A项说“发展东西方之间的海上贸易对投资者来说成本很高，这表明这种贸易可以产生巨大的利润。”和原句相符，保留。4）B项说“与发展这种贸易所需的投资相比，东西方之间的海上贸易所能创造的利润是巨大的。”原句没有比较，排除。5）C项说“利用海上航线的商业活动的增加，反映了东西方贸易对寻求巨大利润的投资者的重要性。”原句没提到重要性的事情，排除。6）D项说“因为人们在东西方之间的海上贸易中进行了大量的投资。他们期望能获得巨大的利润。”原句没有这种因果关系，排除。

【例题2】Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the meteorite theory?
A.The data originally presented as evidence for the theory were eventually rejected.B.Many scientists did not accept it when it was first proposed.C.It has not been widely accepted as an explanation for the K-T extinction.D.Alvarez subsequently revised it after a circular formation was found in the Yucatan Peninsula.
Explanations for the K-T extinction were revolutionized in 1980 when a group of physical scientists led by Luis Alvarez proposed that 65 million years ago Earth was stuck by a 10-kilometer-wide meteorite traveling at 90,000 kilometers per hour. They believed that this impact generated a thick cloud of dust that enveloped Earth, shutting out much of the incoming solar radiation and reducing plant photosynthesis to very low levels. Short-term effects might have included huge tidal waves and extensive fires. In other words, a series of events arising from a single cataclysmic event caused the massive extinctions. Initially, the meteorite theory was based on a single line of evidence. At locations around the globe, geologists had found an unusually high concentration of iridium in the layer of sedimentary rocks that was formed about 65 million years ago. Iridium is an element that is usually uncommon near Earth’s surface, but it is abundant in some meteorites.Therefore, Alvarez and his colleagues concluded that it was likely that the iridium in sedimentary rocks deposited at the K-T boundary had originated in a giant meteorite or asteroid. Most scientist came to accept the meteorite theory after evidence came to light that a circular formation, 180 kilometers in diameter and centered on the north coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, was created by a meteorite impact about 65 million years ago. （摘自TPO33/Passage3）


【句子分析】选项A中画黄色阴影部分的是for接名词构成的介词短语，表对象，译为“最初作为该理论的证据提出的数据最终被否定了”。
【例题分析】1）题干问的是“从第4段中关于陨石理论可以推断出以下哪项”。2）定位原文中的最后一句话“大多数科学家在发现有证据表明，大约6500万年前，在尤卡坦半岛北岸有一个直径180公里、以尤卡坦半岛北岸为中心的圆形陨石撞击形成的陨石阵，大多数科学家都接受了陨石理论。”3）A项说“最初作为该理论的证据提出的数据最终被否定了”。原文没提到，排除。4）B项说“当初提出时，很多科学家并不接受。”最后一句话中的after表明圆形构造出现之后之后科学家才接受陨石理论，因此推出之前是不接受的，保留。5）C项说“它没有被广泛接受为K-T灭绝的解释。”与原文观点相反，排除。6）D项说“阿尔瓦雷斯后来在尤卡坦半岛发现了一个环形阵后，对其进行了修改。”原文没提对其修改的事，排除。

【例题3】Except for certain microorganisms, ________ need oxygen to survive.(A) of all living things(B) all living things(C) all are living things(D) are all living things                                                                                            ---（摘自老托福2001年5月份语法题）

【句子分析】for certain microorganisms这块是for接名词构成的介词短语，表对象，译为“除了某种微生物”。
【例题分析】1）此题应选择B，all living things是名词，可作主语。2）A项是介词短语，介词短语不能作主语，排除。3）C项里有动词，题干里已经有谓语了，动词重复，排除。4）D项和C项错的一样。

小伙伴们，通过上面的例题，我相信大家已经看出来了：在试题中以for出现的形式基本上是后面接名词。其实我们经常会在原文中遇到for接完整句，只是很少当作考题放到选项里，写这篇笔记的重点是想让大家了解并掌握for的各种意义以及后面的结构，无论有没有出现在试题中，我们都能读懂它在句中的意思，希望这篇笔记能给学弟学妹们带来一些启发⭐️⭐️⭐️～～ 加油～

Leo19910203

10篇：托福长难句规律总结之虚拟语气

这次要总结的知识点是虚拟语气，其实我们在初中就接触过虚拟语气，只是在多年的其他专业的学习下，当年学的那点知识都还给老师了?～并且在托福中也时不时地会见到虚拟语气，所以咱们还是把虚拟语气总结一下吧！老规矩，先给出本节知识点的讲解框架，方便大家梳理要点。

1.虚拟语气
1.1虚拟语气的定义及形式
1.2虚拟语气的作用
2.含有虚拟语气的长难句分析
3.含有虚拟语气的托福题目分析

1.虚拟语气
1.1虚拟语气的定义及形式
1）定义
虚拟语气指的是说话者表达的都是难以实现的情况，一般表示假设或者完全与事实相反。此外
如需表达主观愿望或某种强烈的感情时，也可使用虚拟语气。
2）形式
关于虚拟语气，它是对三种时态进行的虚拟假设，分别是过去、现在和将来。
a.对过去的动作发生的虚拟的形式

主句	从句
主语+would have done...	if + 主语 + had done...

E.g. If I had worked harder, I might have passed the exam.

句子大意：如果我之前努力学习，我肯定已经通过考试了。

真实意义：我之前没有好好学习，所以才导致没有通过考试的后果。

b.对现在的动作发生的虚拟

主句	从句
主语+would do ...	if + 主语 + were/v-ed ...

E.g. If I were you，I would not tell him the truth.句子大意：我要是你，我就不会告诉他实情。真实意义：我不可能是你，所以无法扭转他已经知道实情的局面。c.对将来的动作发生的虚拟

主句	从句
主语+would do ...	if + 主语 + were to do / should do + ...

E.g.If she should come, I would ask her for help.句子大意：如果她来的话我就找她帮忙。真实意义：她不太可能会来，所以我也就不能找她帮忙。 1.2虚拟语气的作用1）表达说话人的想象或推测，不是反应客观现实中的真实事实。2）可表达说话人的怀疑、忧虑、推测、假设或祝愿的感受。3）和陈述语气、祈使语气相比，虚拟语气更具备修辞功能，并且在语气上更有力量。

注：虚拟语气由if引导从句部分


2.含有虚拟语气的长难句分析
E.g 1.Coke town was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and theashes had allowed it; but as matters stood it was a town of unnatural red and black like thepainted face of a savage.
【分析】Coke town was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and theashes had allowed it; but as matters stood it was a town of unnatural red and black like thepainted face of a savage.
画阴影的部分是虚拟语气的结构，if从句里面的谓语动词是had done，虚拟语气中的主句里的谓语动词是would have done，即判断出是对过去事实的虚拟。大意是“如果烟雾和灰烬允许的话，它就会是红色的”，但真实的意义是“烟雾和灰烬没有使它变成红色”。
此句主干：Coke town was a town of red brick；but it was a town.（分号在这里相当于句号）
此句从句：if the smoke and theashes had allowed it是if所引导的虚拟条件句
此句翻译：可乐镇是一座红砖城，或者说是一座砖城，如果烟雾和灰烬允许的话，它就会是红色的。但就目前的情况来看，这是一座不自然的红黑相间的城镇，就像一张涂了颜料的野蛮人的脸。

E.g 2.The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters instories that called for basic emotional responses.（摘自新托福真题THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS）
【分析】The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters instories that called for basic emotional responses.画阴影的部分是虚拟语气的结构，if从句里面的谓语动词是were，虚拟语气中的主句里的谓语动词是would，即判断出是对现在事实的虚拟。大意是“如果他们是故事中的人物他们会有怎样的表情”，但真实的意义是“他们不可能是故事中的人物”。

此句主干：The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions.
此句从句：if they were the characters instories that called for basic emotional responses是if所引导的虚拟条件句
此句翻译：问卷中还给出了一些人们熟悉的基本表情，要求答卷者回答如果你是故事中的人物你会作出哪种基本表情。

E.g 3.If, in future, railroads were to charge all customers the same average rate, they argue, shippers who have the option of switching to trucks or other forms of transportation would do so, leaving remaining customers to shoulder the cost of keeping up the line.
【分析】If, in future, railroads were to charge all customers the same average rate, they argue, shippers who have the option of switching to trucks or other forms of transportation would do so, leaving remaining customers to shoulder the cost of keeping up the line.画阴影的部分是虚拟语气的结构，if从句里面的谓语动词是were to do，虚拟语气中的主句里的谓语动词是would，即判断出是对将来事实的虚拟。大意是“他们认为，如果将来铁路公司向所有客户收取相同的平均费用，那些有权选择改用卡车或其他运输方式的托运人就会这样做”，但真实的意义是“将来铁路公司不太可能向所有客户收取相同的费用”。

此句主干：They argue, shippers who have the option of switching to trucks or other forms of transportation would do so.
此句从句：If, in future, railroads were to charge all customers the same average rate是if所引导的虚拟条件句
此句翻译：他们认为，如果将来铁路公司要向所有客户收取相同的平均费率，那么有能力选择改用卡车或其他运输方式的托运人就会这样做，让剩余的客户承担起维持线路的成本。

3.含有虚拟语气的托福题目分析
【例题1】According to paragraph 4, Wegener pointed to all of the following in support of his theory of continental drift EXCEPT:
A. Plants and animals now living on some continents appear to be descended from plants and animals that originated on other continents.B.Rock sequences associated with the continents are extremely similar.C.The coastlines of some continents seem to fit together.D.Mountains on some continents would be adjacent to mountains on other continents if these continentswere joined.

【原文】
Yet another scheme for approximating Earth’s age had been proposed in 1715 by Sir Edmund Halley (1656-1742), whose name we associate with the famous comet. Halley surmised that the ocean formed soon after the origin of the planet and therefore would be only slightly younger that the age of the solid Earth. He reasoned that the original ocean was not salty and that subsequently salt derived from the weathering of rocks was brought to the sea by streams. Thus, if one knew the total amount of salt dissolved in the ocean and the amount added each year, it might be possible to calculate the ocean’s age in 1899, Irish geologist John Joly (1857-1933) attempted the calculation. From information provided by gauges placed at the mouths of streams, Joly was able to estimate the annual increment of salt to the oceans. Then, knowing the salinity of ocean water and the approximate volume of water, he calculated the amount of salt already held in solution in the oceans. An estimate of the age of the ocean was obtained by diving the total salt in the ocean by the rate of salt added each year. Beginning with essentially non-saline oceans, it would have taken about 90 million years of the oceans to reach their present salinity, according to Joly. The figure, however, was off the currently accepted mark of 4.54 billion by a factor of 50, largely because there was no way to account accurately by recycled salt and salt incorporated into clay mineral deposited on the sea floors. Even though in error, Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on an age for Earth far in excess of a few million years. The belief in Earth’s immense antiquity was also supported by Darwin, Huxley, and other evolutionary biologists, who saw the need for time in the hundreds of millions of years to accomplish the organic evolution apparent in the fossil record.（摘自托福真题Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age）


【句子分析】在选项C中就出现了虚拟语气的知识点：Argue that Joly’s calculations would have been more exact if he had collaborated with experts in other fields画阴影的部分是虚拟语气的结构，if从句里面的谓语动词是had done，虚拟语气里的主句的谓语动词是would have done，即判断出是对过去事实的虚拟。大意是“认为如果乔利与其他领域的专家合作的话，他的计算会更精确。”但真实的意义是“乔利没有和他们合作”。
【例题分析】
1）题干问的是“作者提到 "达尔文、赫胥黎和其他进化论生物学家"，是为了
2）在文中最后两句提到了相关内容，“即使在错误中，乔利的计算显然支持了那些坚持认为地球的年龄远远超过几百万年的地质学家。达尔文（Darwin）、赫胥黎（Huxley）和其他进化生物学家也支持地球具有巨大古老性的观点，他们认为需要数亿年的时间才能完成化石记录中显而易见的有机进化。
3）A项说“提供证据证明乔利的计算启发了科学家们进行其他方面的科学探索。”文中没提，排除。
4）B项说“支持当时所有顶尖科学家都认为地球只有9000万年历史的说法。”文中没提，排除。
5）C项说“认为如果乔利与其他领域的专家合作的话，他的计算会更精确。”文中的意思不是与那些专家合作就能使得计算精准，与文意不符，排除。
6）D项说“为了解释他们的发现，提供一些科学家的例子，这些科学家相信地球的年龄比每年只有几百万岁大，就像乔利一样”，其实文中提这些科学家就是为了说明他们和乔利的观点一致，正确。

写到这里已经头晕脑胀了??～主要是为了学弟学妹能看的更清晰，我找了大量的题来举例。希望看到这篇分享的伙伴能够有所收获，也不枉我用三个多小时来写这篇笔记?～ 加油～

ice_0105

谢谢~~~~~

Leo19910203

11篇：长难句的划分方法

在学英语的过程中，我们常常会被一只“小怪兽”所困扰过，就是长难句。由于中英文在语法方面的修饰上具有很大的差别，所以同学们很不适应，也很不容易寻找到长难句中的主干和其他成分。

在我们博大精深的汉语里，对于形容词性的词或者短语，国人习惯于将它放在被修饰的名词之前，比如：美丽的聪明的会打扮的小丽，但是在英语中，过长的修饰性成分要被放在被修饰的名词之后，比如Metals are very strong and can be made into any required shapes, which makes it possible to be widely used in industry.正是因为有很多这样冗长的修饰性成分，才会使一个句子巨长无比，也就是同学们口中的长难句，但是，无论它又多长，里面有多少个生词，同学们先不要被它的样子吓坏，只要找到它的内核，即主干，就立马清晰了。下面，来举两个例子。

E.g. The explanation is 【that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season】.
结构划分：  主干：The explanation is that []
                                 主干中的宾语使用了名词性从句，而非一个单词，这是造成此句很长的
                                 原因；
                  定语从句：which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins
                                         and stored it for use in the dry season
                                         此定语从句被包含在名词性从句当中，被用来修饰前面的名词
                                         reserviors；
翻译： 对此的解释是玛雅人挖掘了洼地，或改造天然洼地，然后通过在洼地底部抹上灰泥来堵塞岩溶中的漏洞，以建造水库，从巨大的抹灰集水盆地收集雨水并储存起来，以备旱季之用。

E.g. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.
结构划分 ：主干：individuals could interact with one another                 定语从句：that flourished in this laissez-faire environment
                                         此定语从句被包含在介词短语之中，被用来修饰前面的名
                                         词 production；
                  V-ing ... ：following their own popularly elected leaders and
                                        governing  themselves by shared consensus
                                        这里面的following也是主干中的主语individuals发出的动作；
                  状语从句：while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power
                                         是状语从句，省略了从句的主语和be-v
翻译 ： 在许多小规模的地方平等或准平等的奖学金组织中，崇拜，和生产在这种自由放任的环境中蓬勃发展，个人可以在一个和谐和意识形态平等的社区内彼此互动，遵循自己的民选领导人，通过共同的共识管理自己，同时最大限度地减少财富和权力的差别。

通过以上两道对长难句的分析，我们能够看出，即便出现了不认识的单词，但是引导词或者介词，我们总是认识的，只要抓对线索，完全可以抠出主干，并看出修饰性成分，看懂了结构，才能对句子所表达的内容有一定的了解。

Leo19910203

第12篇：限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句

除了定语从句的引导词及其形式，我们还应该掌握限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句。在日常或者工作中，我们也会使用到这两种表达。

“限制”和“非限制”的对象是什么？—— 先行词（antecedent）的范围。

非限制性定语从句主要是对先行词进行补充说明，与主句的关系没有那么密切，省略后不会影响到主句的完整意思。

而限制性定语从句与主句关系密切，删除后会使主句意思不完整。

限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句最明显的区别在于，后者要以逗号隔开。

我们读到很多英语文章中，非限制性定语从句没有和先行词之间打逗号，但是严格来说非限制性定语从句和先行词之间应该要有逗号的。

E.g. She bought a gift for her sister who studied in USC.
她给在 USC 读书的姐妹买了一件礼物。

此为限制性定语从句。如果不在后面说明 sister 的情况，我们就不知道她给哪位姐妹买了礼物。

E.g. She bought a gift for her sister, who studied in USC.
她给她的姐妹买了一件礼物，那位姐妹在 USC 上学。

此为非限制性定语从句。这里没有对 sister 进行具体指代，表示她的姐妹只有一个。

限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句看起来只有一个逗号的差异，表达的内容却是不同的。他们还有一些不同点要注意：

1. that / why 只能用于引导限制性定语从句，而不能用于非限制性定语从句。

E.g. He spread the news that came this morning.
他传播了今天早上来的新闻。

E.g. The reason why this marvellous production has swept around the world like a tornado is the drenching sorrow and bigness of its vision.
这部绝妙的电影像旋风一样席卷去陪人，其原因是影片浸染着悲伤，极具洞察力。

2.限制性定语从句只修饰其先行词（名词或代词）；而非限制性定语从句的修饰对象除了名词或代词，还可以是整个主句、主句中的动词短语或表语等。

E.g. The restaurant which is next to the pub is really good.
挨着酒吧的那家餐厅真的很棒。

从句只修饰先行词 restaurant。

E.g. The northen villages had great snowfalls, which was good for winter sports.
北面的村庄下了大雪，这对冬季运动有好处。

后半句的 which 指的是北面村庄下大雪的这件事。

3. 限制性定语从句中关系代词有时可省略，非限制性定语从句不可省略关系代词。

E.g. We are proud that the first place (that) the sun rises in our country is here.
我们很骄傲，在我们国家，太阳是从这里升起的。

此为限定性定语从句，that 可以省略。

4.当先行词是指上文提到的人或物时，一般要用非限制性定语从句。

E.g. Although Woods recently spilt with law student Joanna, 23, whom he dated for more than two years, don't bet on his getting involved again soon.
尽管伍兹最近刚跟 23 岁的法学院学生乔安娜分手，他们交往了两年多，但他不大可能很快再次陷入一份感情之中。

先行词 Joanna 在前文也有提到。

5.修饰专有名词时不能用限制性定语从句，需要用非限制性定语从句。

E.g. My hometown is Beijing,  that is the capital of China.
我的家乡北京是中国的首都。

这里 Beijing 是先行词，也是专有名词。全世界只有一个北京，所以不用限制它的范围，采用非限制性定语从句即可。

Leo19910203

第13篇： 定语从句的省略

咱们先把定从省略的结构记一下，有两种：
1）当引导词在从句中作宾语的时候，可以把引导词省略掉。
E.g. The man whom we saw yerterday is Mr. Brown.
        [引导词whom在从句中saw的宾语，因此可以省略掉]
==  The man yerterday is Mr. Brown.

      Americans often say that there are only two things a person can be sure of in life: death and taxes.
      [things后面省略了that/which，引导词作从句中sure的宾语]
==Americans often say that there are only two things that/which a person can be sure of in life: death and taxes.

2）当引导词在从句中作主语，且从句的谓语动词是be-v，可以把引导词和be-v同时省略掉。
E.g. I like the girl who is sitting over there.
       [引导词who在从句中作主语，且从句的谓语动词是be-v，因此可以省略掉who is]
==  I like the girl  sitting over there.

       The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands”(resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels.
        [onrushing water的后面省略了that/which is，表示“从这些山洪中而来的湍急水流”，arising from these flash floods是定语成分，被用来修饰onrushing water]
== The onrushing water that/which is isarising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands”(resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels.

定语从句的省略无论是在阅读、听力还是写作中，甚至是口语当中，都是常用到的知识点，所以同学们平时多积累这方面的句子，看得多了、用得多了，自然就明白了，而且也会很熟悉的使用它，上面分别举了两个例子，对于基础薄弱的同学肯定不够用，接下来再拿几个句子，大家可以来分析定语从句的结构。
1.Although these molecules allow radiation at visible wavelengths, where most of the energy of sunlight is concentrated, to pass through, they absorb some of the longer-wavelength, infrared emissions radiated from the Earth’s surface, radiation that would otherwise be transmitted back into space.



此句是在emissions的后面省略了which/that are，后面的radiated from the Earth’s surface其实是定语从句里的部分，被用来修饰emissions。

2.Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-colorlead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip——as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value.

此句有两处省略
第一个是在burial ceramics的后面省略了which/that are，后面的burial ceramics其实是定语从句里的部分，被用来修饰burial ceramics。
第二个是在vessels的后面省略了which/that are，后面的made in materials of higher intrinsic value其实是定语从句里的部分，被用来修饰vessels。

3.The key factor in the success of these countries ( along with high literacy, which contributed to it ) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited.

此句是在labor的后面省略了which/that was，后面的etermined by the early industrializers实是定语从句里的部分，被用来修饰labor。

Leo19910203

第14篇 Since的用法

• 本节知识点的概要
  

1.since的介绍

1.1since的词性及含义

1.2since接什么结构

2.since的长难句分析

1.since的介绍

1.1since的词性及含义

a.关于since这个单词，很多同学都只知道它和现在完成时态有关，翻译为“自从”，但是在英语语法中，它还有其他的用法和作用，下面把所有有关since的用法都整理到一起，给大家做为参考。

b.不同的词性有不同的含义

• Prep.(介词) 自......以后；从......以来
• Conj.(连词) 既然；因为
• Adv. (副词) 因为；自从
  

1.2since接什么结构

a.当since是介词的时候，后面接N./V-ing

e.g.She's been off work since Tuesday.

I haven't eaten since breakfast.

b.当since是连词的时候，后面接SVO(完整句)

e.g.We thought that, since we were in the area, we'd stop by and see them.

c.当since是副词的时候，后面接SVO(完整句)

e.g.I'm forever on a diet, since I put on weight easily.

How many years is it since we've seen each other? Too many, anyway.  

2.since的长难句分析

• S1. Since the days of Aristotle, a search for universal principles has characterized the scientific enterprise. In some ways, this quest for commonalities defines science.
  

分析：在这里since是prep.(介词)，后面接名词，意为“自从亚里士多德的时代起”

翻译：自亚里士多德的时代起，对普遍原理的探求就一直是科学事业的主要特征。在某些方面，寻找事物的共性也正是科学的定义/内涵。

• S2. Since desire and will are damaged by the presence of thoughts that do not accord with desire, Allen concluded: “ We do not attract what we want, but what we are.”
  

分析：在这里since是adv.(副词)，后面接完整句，意为“因为欲望和意志被与欲望不一致的思想所破坏”

翻译：因为欲望和意志被与欲望不一致的思想所破坏，爱伦总结说：“我们吸引的不是我们想要的，而是我们的本质。”

• S3. The physicist rightly dreads precise argument, since an argument that is convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumptions on which it is based are slightly changed, whereas an argument that is convincing though imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying assumptions.
  

分析：在这里since是adv.(副词)，后面接完整句，意为“因为论点失去了所有的力量”

翻译：这位物理学家确实害怕精确的论证，因为一个只有在它是精确的情况下才有说服力的论点，如果它所基于的假设稍有改变，就会失去所有的力量，而一个虽然有说服力但不精确的论点，在其基本假设的微小扰动下，很可能是稳定的。

• S4. Since the general civilization of mankind, I believe there are more instances of the abridgment of the freedom of the people by gradual and silent encroachments of those in power, than by violent and sudden usurpations; but, on a candid examination of history, we shall find that turbulence, violence, and abuse of power, by the majority trampling on the rights of the minority, have produced factions and commotions, which, in republics, have, more frequently than anyother cause, produced despotism.
  

分析：在这里since是prep.(介词)，后面接名词，意为“自从人类普遍的文明以来”

翻译：自从人类普遍的文明以来，我相信有更多的例子表明，当权者逐渐地、无声地侵犯人民的自由。而不是暴力和突然的侵占。但是，在对历史进行坦率的考察之后，我们会发现，多数人践踏少数人的权利所造成的动荡、暴力和滥用权力，产生了派系和动乱，而在共和国中，这些因素比任何其他原因更经常地产生专制。

Leo19910203

第15篇：情态动词的用法

本节知识点的概要

1.情态动词的概念
1.1情态动词的特点及作用
1.2情态动词的形式
2.情态动词的用法
2.1Can/Could的用法
2.2May/Might的用法
2.3Will/Would的用法
2.4Shall/Should的用法
2.5Must的用法
2.6Need/Dare的用法

1.情态动词的概念

人们在日常的英语交流中，除了表达具体的动作，也经常使用到含有语气的动词，这些动词可能表示推测、命令等语气和情感，因此就出现了情态动词(Modal Verb)。

1.1情态动词的特点及作用

情态动词虽然在名字里含有动词，但本质上它无法独立充当谓语动词，它相当于助动词，后面需要接实义动词的原形来一起构成谓语成分，即情态动词+实义动词原形。

1.2情态动词的形式

Can/Could表示“能”
May/Might表示“也许”
Will/Would表示“将要”
Shall/Should表示“应该”
Must表示“必须”
Need/Dare表示“需要”以及“敢”

2.情态动词的用法

1）Can/Could的用法
表示体力和脑力方面的能力 e.g. I can run fast.
表示对现在的动作或状态进行主观的猜测，主要用在否定句和疑问句当中 e.g. Can he be serious?
表示委婉客气地提出问题或陈述看法e.g.They could have let me know they were going to be late.
e.g. It can’t when so many more employers have so much more access to so much more above average cheap foreign labor, cheap robotics, cheap software, cheap automation and cheap genius.
==如今，更多的雇主有机会招募到非凡的廉价的外国劳动力和机器人，购买到廉价的软件，低成本的实现自动化，挖掘到价格低廉的天才。
e.g. Who can say whether , as time goes on, we may not dress in military uniform , with gold lace on our breasts , swords at our sides , and something like the old family coal-scuttle on our heads , save that venerable object was never decorated with plums of white horsehair?
==谁能说，随着时间的推移，我们可能不会穿上军装，胸前镶着金花边，腰间插着剑，头上顶着像家里的煤斗一样的东西，除了那件古老的东西从来没有用白色马毛做成的梅子装饰过？

2）May/Might的用法
表示询问 e.g. May I come in?
表示可能发生的事，语气不太肯定 e.g. They may well win./He might get there in time, but I can't be sure.
e.g. Not necessarily, for the ability to shape one's own role is one of the freedoms that many people desire, but the ambiguity may lead to role stress which will be discussed later on.
==这也不一定，因为塑造一个人自身角色的能力是很多人都渴望得到的自由之一，但是角色模糊可能会导致角色紧张，稍后会讨论这点。
e.g. Small grains may be blown farther but they are also more prone to be whisked past the waiting stigma because smaller particles tend to stay trapped in the fast-moving air that flows around the stigma.
==小颗粒可能被吹得更远，但他们也更容易被吹过等待的柱头，因为较小的颗粒会被困在柱头周围快速移动的空气流里。

3）Will/Would的用法
表示主观意志、意愿 e.g. I'll check this letter for you, if you want.
表示请求，或征求意见 e.g.You'll water the plants while I'm away, won't you?
表示命令 e.g. You'll do it this minute!
e.g. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. ----The Declaration of Independence
==若真要审慎的来说，成立多年的政府是不应当由于无关紧要的和一时的原因而予以更换的。过去的一切经验都说明，任何苦难，只要尚能忍受，人类还是情愿忍受，也不想为申冤而废除他们久已习惯了的政府形式。-----《独立宣言》
e.g. If, on the other hand, producing more of a commodity results in reducing its cost, this will tend to increase the supply （offered by seller-producers）, which in turn will lower the price and permit more consumers to buy the product.
==另一方面，如果生产更多的商品可以降低成本，那么生产商可能会增加供给，反过来，这也会降低商品价格，让更多的消费者购买产品。

4）Shall/Should的用法
表示征求对方的意见 e.g. Shall I send you the book?
表示义务、责任或劝告 e.g. You shouldn't drink and drive.
e.g. They should be quick to respond to letters to the editor, lest animal rights misinformation go unchallenged and acquire a deceptive appearance of truth.
==他们应该迅速回复给编辑的信件，以免动物权利的错误信息不受质疑，并获得真相的欺骗性外表。
e.g. Instead, he says, the government’s role should be in creating policy incentives for workers to invest in human capital, their employees, in the same way that it incentivizes companies to upgrade their research and development and infrastructure: through tax incentives.
==相反，他说，政府的作用应该是创造政策激励，让工人投资于人力资本，他们的雇员，以同样的方式激励公司升级他们的研发和基础设施:通过税收优惠。

5）Must的用法
表示必须，强调说话人的主观看法 e.g. All visitors must report to reception.
表示推测(符合逻辑) e.g. He must have known what she wanted.
e.g. Obviously we must do soe serious rethinking of our priorities, least linguistics go down in history as the only science that presided obviously over the disappearance f 90 percen of the very field to which it is dedicate.
==显然，我们必须认真地重新思考我们的优先事项，至少语言学在历史上是唯一一门科学，它显然主导了90%的领域的消失，而这正是它所致力的。
e.g. Now we must also examine the culture as we Mexican Americans have experienced it, passing from a sovereign people to compatriots with newly arriving settlers to, finally, a conquered people—a charter minority on our own land.
==现在，我们还必须审视我们墨西哥裔美国人所经历的文化，从一个主权民族，到与新来的定居者成为同胞，最后成为一个被征服的民族——我们自己土地上的一个特许少数民族。

6）Need/Dare的用法
need作情态动词时，表示建议、询问 e.g. You needn't finish that work today.
dare作情态动词时，表示敢于 e.g. I don’t know whether he dare try.

Leo19910203

第16篇 后置定语

本节知识点的概要
1.后置定语的概念
1.1后置定语的特点及作用
1.2后置定语的形式
2.后置定语的长难句分析

1.后置定语的概念
人们在用英语交流的时候，会使用从句或短语来修饰名词，按理来说定语应该放在名词之前，但是由于从句或短语过长，容易引起语意混淆，于是人们就把短语放到了被修饰的名词之后，因此就出现了后置定语(Postpositive Attributive)。
1.1后置定语的特点及作用
起到修饰名词的作用，且修饰性的成分不只是一个单词，而是由多个单词构成的短语或者从句，使被修饰的名词更具体、更生动。
1.2后置定语的形式
a.现在分词短语（V-ing. + prep. + n.）
e.g.I like the girl sitting over there.
b.过去分词短语（V-ed.+ prep. + n.）
e.g.She is my friend hired by this company.
c.介词短语（V-ing.+ prep. + n.）
e.g.She is my friend in the classroom.
d.形容词性短语（Adj. + prep. + n.）
e.g.He is my boyfriend handsome to me.

2.后置定语的长难句分析
The Indian rockets used against the British were described by a British Captain serving in India as “an iron envelope about 200 millimeters long and 40 millimeters in diameter with sharp points at the top and a 3m-long bamboo guiding stick”.
       ==这种新的计时器的革命性既不是提供原动力的向下作用的重力，也不是那些传递动力的齿轮
      (已经在世界各地使用了至少1300年);它的革命性在于那个被称为“擒纵装置”的部件。
Totally without light and subjected to intense pressures hundreds of times greater than at the Earth’s surface，the deep—ocean bottom is a hostile environment to humans，in some ways as forbidding and remote as the void of outer space.
       ==由于完全没有光，而且承受着比在地球表面大数百倍的极大压力，深海底部对人类而言是一个
      充满敌意的环境，在某些方面就像外层空间一样险恶和遥远。
James Boswell, his biographer, described the garret where Johnson worked as “fitted up like a counting house”with a long desk running down the middle at which the copying clerks would work standing up.
       ==他的传记作者詹姆斯·博斯韦尔（James Boswell）将约翰逊工作的阁楼描述为布置得像一间
       计算室，中间有一张长桌子，复印人员可以站着工作。
But at least they would distinguish the organizations entitled to a continuing voice in the dialogue with the research community about the rights of animals in research from the organizations that deserve no say.
       ==但至少他们会区分哪些组织有权在与研究界关于动物研究权利的对话中继续发言，哪些组
      织没有发言权。
Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problem arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.
      ==此外，由于人口爆炸或大规模迁移（现代交通工具使这种迁移变得相对容易）引发的问题，
     也可能造成额外的社会压力。

Leo19910203

第17篇 While的用法

本节知识点的概要
1.While的用法
1.1while的词性
1.2while后面接的结构
2.while的长难句分析

1.While的用法
while这个单词有好几种词性，并且人们常用它引导从句表达时间，由于使用的频率较高，因此我们把它的所有用法都总结下来。
1.1while的特点及词性
名词（N.）一会儿、一段时间
连词（Conj.）当......时候；尽管；只要
1.2while后面接的结构
作名词时，可以充当主语、宾语、表语、同位语，但是while作名词时充当主语和同位语的时候飞非常少，经常和介词一起使用够成介词短语，如for a while。
e.g. She likes to lie down for a while after lunch.和for一起构成介词短语
       Coming to another country to study requires a big adjustment and it takes a while to fit in.放
       在takes之后作宾语
作连词时，后面经常接完整句，引导状语从句，根据句意翻译成“当......时候；尽管；只要”三种不同的含义，用作“只要”的意思通常少一些。
e.g.We must strike while the iron is hot.（当......时候）
      While she was listening to the radio,she fell asleep.（当......时候）
      While he loves his students, he is very strict with them.（尽管）
      While there is life there is hope.（只要）

2.while的长难句分析
However, Allen believed that the unconscious mind generates as much action as the conscious mind, and while we may be able to sustain the illusion of control through the conscious mind alone, in reality we are continually faced with a question: “Why cannot I make myself do this or achieve that? ”
       ==句子成分分析：主干是Allen believed that SVO.
       ==然而，Allen认为无意识的思想会产生跟显意识思想一样多的行为;他还认为尽管我们或许能仅
       凭显意识来维持“控制”这种错觉，但事实上我们却一直面临一个问题：“为什么我们不能让自己完
       成这件事或实现那一目标哪？”
While these records provide broadly consistent indications that temperature variations can occur on a global scale, there are nonetheless some intriguing differences, which suggest that the pattern of temperature variations in regional climatescan also differ significantly from each other.
       ==句子成分分析：主干是there are nonetheless some intriguing differences
       ==虽然这些记录提供了广泛一致的迹象表明温度变化能在全球范围内发生，但是会有一些有趣的
       差异，这些差异表明在区域气候温度变化的模式彼此之间差异很大。
While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites,which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years, a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important.
       ==句子成分分析：主干是a number of writers have warned that SVO.
       ==虽然接受了这种顺序与这些地点的考古图案相符(这些地方几千年来充满了这样的图案)，但一
       些作者警告说这种顺序的潜在假设——从简单图案和几何图案再到复杂图案和自然主义图案的发
       展——模糊了澳大利亚土著文化的连续性，而在这里几何图案的象征主义依然十分重要。