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关于因果类假设与加强的做法,疑问~~NN请进

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发表于 2013-10-25 19:40:15 | 只看该作者 回帖奖励 |倒序浏览 |阅读模式
看BIBLE说道 cause-effect题目的加强做法之一是:
无因必无果

在逻辑上着实有点不太理解

非A 推出 非B ;能加强 A 推出 B 么?

类似习题:OG13 #95
95. Studies in restaurants show that the tips left bycustomers who pay their bill in cash tend to be larger when the bill ispresented on a tray that bears a credit-card logo. Consumer psychologistshypothesize that simply seeing a credit-card logo makes many credit-cardholders willing to spend more because it reminds them that their spending powerexceeds the cash they have immediately available.
Which of the following, if true, moststrongly supports the psychologists’ interpretation of the studies?
(A) The effect noted in the studies is not limited topatrons who have credit cards.
(B) Patrons who are under financial pressure from theircredit-card obligations tend to tip less when presented with a restaurant billon a tray with a credit-card logo than when the tray has no logo.
(C) In virtually all of the cases in the studies, thepatrons who paid bills in cash did not possess credit cards.
(D) In general, restaurant patrons who pay their bills incash leave larger tips than do those who pay by credit card.
(E) The percentage of restaurant bills paid with a givenbrand of credit card increases when that credit card’s logo is displayed on thetray with which the bill is presented.
答案 B

坛子的同学是否还能提供其他 用 ”无因必无果“ 来做因果类加强或假设的题的? 我巩固一下~~谢谢!

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发表于 2013-10-25 22:14:45 | 只看该作者
这种题实际上用helr的分类就是果因推理,用新东方的分类就是BA型推理,用bible 就是cause-effect 推理。
首先回答为什么非A-》非B是加强呢?
因为bible中说了,结论中是原因的情况实际上的隐含假设是原因是结果的唯一原因。
也就是if and only if A then B。这在逻辑上就是A和B是互为充分必要的意思。
非A-》非B的等价命题是B-》A 证明了A是B的必要条件,虽然没有完全证明A与B之间互为充要,但部分加强了这种关系。

之后再给你几个我从helr的逻辑笔记中摘出来的果因推理题,就是这种题。和这种题类似的还有方案推断题,其隐含逻辑也是方案是解决问题的唯一办法,也是互为充要的关系。

以下部分来自helr的perp 08 CR笔记,论坛上有下载:

85.       属于CQ2:因果联系问题。(个人感觉 CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)更好,因为排除了它因)

Every fall Croton's jays migrate south.  The jays always join flocks of migrating crookbeaks with which they share the same summer and winter territories.  If a jay becomes separated from the crookbeaks it is accompanying, it wanders until it comes across another flock of crookbeaks.  Clearly, therefore, Croton's jays lack the navigational ability to find their way south on their own.

Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument above?

A. Croton's jays lay their eggs in the nests of crookbeaks, which breed upon completing their southern migration.
B. The three species most closely related to crookbeaks do not migrate at all.
C. In the spring, Croton's jays migrate north in the company of Tattersall warblers.
D. Species other than Croton's jays occasionally accompany flocks of migrating crookbeaks.
E. In the spring, crookbeaks migrate north before Croton's jays do.


1.     由问题问法得知,此题是评估类的题目。

2.     找到前提和结论:

结论句是:“Clearly, therefore, Croton's jays lack the navigational ability to find their way south on their own.”


3.     判断推理模式:

通过前提和结论的关系,首先可以排除类比,统计枚举,和方案推理。又由前提与结论发生的逻辑时间,我们发现,在逻辑时间上,肯定是Croton的鸟先没有方向感,然后才会被迫跟着crookbeak迁徙。所以前提是果,也就是待解释的现象,而结论是“因”,也就是产生现象的原因。

前提(果)是:“Croton的鸟总是加入crookbeak的团队来进行迁徙,而且如果跟丢了,会等下一波crookbeak的团队来再继续跟着”
结论(因)是:“Croton的鸟缺少方向感”

4.     找到答案方向:
果因模式推理有两个CQ:
CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)
CQ2:因果联系问题。

果因类型的题目,答案选项必须提出一个能解释“果”(前提)的因素或者直接涉及因果之间的联系才能评估这种推理模式,其余方向的选项一定不是答案。

选项分析:

A.    Croton的鸟会在crookbeak的鸟巢中下蛋,crookbeak会在向南迁徙的过程中孵化这些蛋。这个选项或许可以解释为什么Croton的鸟会跟着crookbeak前行,但是不能解释为什么跟丢了之后,会等下一波crookbeak的团队来再继续跟着。Croton的鸟总不会不要第一波的孩子了吧?故而该选项不能解释“果”。
B.     和crookbeak最相近的三个种类的鸟从来不迁徙。该选项不涉及“果”,更不涉及因果之间的联系,不能评估果因模式推理。
C.    Correct. 在春季,Croton的鸟会随着塔特萨尔莺的队伍向北迁徙。这个选项提供了一个因果联系的问题。试想,如果Croton的鸟向北移动的时候,就是单独行动的。这个说法显然就可以否定没有方向感和与其他鸟成群移动的因果联系。所以这个选项可以成为原文的一个加强。属于CQ2:因果联系问题。
D.    除掉Croton的鸟,其他种类的鸟很少和crookbeak一起成群迁徙。该选项不涉及“果”,更不涉及因果之间的联系,不能评估果因模式推理。
E.     在春天,crookbeak先于Croton的鸟向北迁徙。一定程度上,该选项也提出了一个因果联系的问题。不过问题是,没有证据证明Croton的鸟不会跟着别的鸟走,所以削弱原文中因果联系的程度要小于C选项。

97.        CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)

It is theoretically possible that bacteria developed on Mars early in its history and that some were carried to Earth by a meteorite.  However, strains of bacteria from different planets would probably have substantial differences in protein structure that would persist over time, and no two bacterial strains on Earth are different enough to have arisen on different planets.  So, even if bacteria did arrive on Earth from Mars, they must have died out.

The argument is most vulnerable to which of the following criticisms?

A. It fails to establish whether bacteria actually developed on Mars.
B. It fails to establish how likely it is that Martian bacteria were transported to Earth.
C. It fails to consider whether there were means other than meteorites by which Martian bacteria could have been carried to Earth.
D. It fails to consider whether all bacteria now on Earth could have arisen from transported Martian bacteria.
E. It fails to consider whether there could have been strains of bacteria that originated on Earth and later died out.


1.     由问题问法得知,此题是评估类的题目。

2.     找到前提和结论:
结论句是:“Even if bacteria did arrive on Earth from Mars, they must have died out.”
3.     判断推理模式:

通过前提和结论的关系,首先可以排除类比,统计枚举,和方案推理。又由前提与结论发生的逻辑时间,我们发现,在逻辑时间上,如果来自火星的细菌都真正的灭绝了,才会导致现在有的细菌在蛋白质结构上差距不大。所以前提是果,也就是待解释的现象,而结论是“因”,也就是产生现象的原因。

前提(果)是:“现在地球上的任意两族的细菌的蛋白质结构的差距都没有足够明显到可以认为它们来自两个行星”
结论(因)是:“就算有来自火星的细菌,它们也灭绝了”
  
4.     找到答案方向:
果因模式推理有两个CQ:
CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)
CQ2:因果联系问题。

果因类型的题目,答案选项必须提出一个能解释“果”(前提)的原因或者直接涉及因果之间的联系才能评估这种推理模式,其余方向的选项一定不是答案。

选项分析:

A.    文段没有建立是否细菌真正的在火星上存在。涉及了“细菌”,但是不是地球上的细菌。也没有涉及火星细菌灭绝和地球细菌之间的因果关系。
B.     文段没有建立火星上的细菌到达地球有多少可能性。解释同上。
C.    文段没有考虑除掉陨石之外,还有没有其他的途径可以供火星细菌到达地球。不能提出蛋白质无差异的原因,也没有提供因果联系。
D.    Correct. 文段没有考虑是不是现在地球上所有的细菌都是来自于火星的。显然,该选项提供了一个潜在的原因来解释原文中的“果”,也就是解释了为什么细菌蛋白质差异很小,而非火星来的都灭绝了这个的原因。属于CQ1:说明结果问题。
E.     文段没有考虑是否有一些地球上的细菌种族出现了,然后之后灭绝了。如果该选项说的是所有的地球上的细菌种族都先出现,而后灭绝,那么该选项也说明了结果。但是有些,并不能评估这个果因推理。

99.       CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)

One of the limiting factors in human physical performance is the amount of oxygen that is absorbed by the muscles from the bloodstream.  Accordingly, entrepreneurs have begun selling at gymnasiums and health clubs bottles of drinking water, labeled “SuperOXY,” that has extra oxygen dissolved in the water. Such water would be useless in improving physical performance, however, since the amount of oxygen in the blood of someone who is exercising is already more than the muscle cells can absorb.

Which of the following, if true, would serve the same function in the argument as the statement in boldface?

A. world-class athletes turn in record performances without such water
B. frequent physical exercise increases the body’s ability to take in and use oxygen
C. the only way to get oxygen into the bloodstream so that it can be absorbed by the muscles is through the lungs
D. lack of oxygen is not the only factor limiting human physical performance
E. the water lost in exercising can be replaced with ordinary tap water


1.     由问题问法得知,此题是评估类的题目。
2.     找到前提和结论:

结论句是:“Such water would be useless in improving physical performance”

这个题目我们通过读问题和原文得知,黑体字部分是原文因果推理模式的前提,也就是逻辑上的因,而问题想让我们找到一个和这个前提具有同样功能的句子,其实就是给原来结论再找到一个“因”,也就是能说明结论选项。比较像果因的CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)

选项分析:

A.    世界级运动员不喝这样的水也能达到创记录的表现。这个选项不能解释为什么这些水没用,因为运动员不喝也可以,不代表喝了没用。
B.     高频率的体育运动可以增加身体摄入和用氧的能力。这是人体吸收氧的原理,不能说明结论的产生。
C.    Correct. 人体唯一能吸收氧并让其进入血液而最终被肌肉吸收的方式就是通过肺。显然这个选项可以解释为什么喝氧没用。
D.    缺氧并非影响人们运动能力的唯一因素。这个选项是缺氧的原理,不是一个“因”。
E.     在运动中丢失的水可以直接用普通自来水来弥补。该选项是“补充”水的原理,不能说明为什么XYO水没用。

114.     属于CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)

Excavations of the Roman city of Sepphoris have uncovered numerous detailed mosaics depicting several readily identifiable animal species:  a hare, a partridge, and various Mediterranean fish.  Oddly, most of the species represented did not live in the Sepphoris region when these mosaics were created.  Since identical motifs appear in mosaics found in other Roman cities, however, the mosaics of Sepphoris were very likely created by traveling artisans from some other part of the Roman Empire.

Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

A. The Sepphoris mosaics are not composed exclusively of types of stones found naturally in the Sepphoris area.
B. There is no single region to which all the species depicted in the Sepphoris mosaics are native.
C. No motifs appear in the Sepphoris mosaics that do not also appear in the mosaics of some other Roman city.
D. All of the animal figures in the Sepphoris mosaics are readily identifiable as representations of known species.
E. There was not a common repertory of mosaic designs with which artisans who lived in various parts of the Roman Empire were familiar.
1.     由问题问法得知,此题是评估类的题目。

2.     找到前提和结论:

结论句是:“The mosaics of Sepphoris were very likely created by traveling artisans from some other part of the Roman Empire.”


3.     判断推理模式:

通过前提和结论的关系,首先可以排除类比,统计枚举,和方案推理。又由前提与结论发生的逻辑时间,我们发现,在逻辑时间上,一定是旅行艺术家先创造了镶嵌工艺,才有可能出现大部分镶嵌工艺所描绘的动物都是在当时的Sepphoris不存在的。所以前提是果,也就是待解释的现象,而结论是“因”,也就是产生现象的原因。

前提(果)是:“在Sepphoris出土的一些镶嵌工艺所描绘的动物都是在当时的Sepphoris不存在的”
结论(因)是:“是旅行到Sepphoris的艺术家创造了它们”


4.     找到答案方向:
果因模式推理有两个CQ:
CQ1:说明结果问题。
CQ2:因果联系问题。

果因类型的题目,答案选项必须提出一个能解释“果”(前提)的原因或者直接涉及因果之间的联系才能评估这种推理模式,其余方向的选项一定不是答案。


选项分析:

A.    Sepphoris的镶嵌工艺不仅仅是由Sepphoris地区本地产的石头组成的。该选项涉及到“果”中出现的镶嵌工艺的组成成分,不是一个“果”产生的原因。
B.     没有任何一个地方的当地动物包括所有Sepphoris的镶嵌工艺所描绘的动物。不论这些描绘的动物是否出现在同一个地方,都不能说明“果”的存在性。
C.    没有一种Sepphoris的镶嵌工艺所描绘的动物是也不出现在其他罗马城市的动物。该选项肯定不能说明原文中的“果”;其次,对于原文中的因果联系,无论描绘的动物是否出现在其他罗马的城市,都不能评估到底是不是旅行者的作品。所以该选项不能成为答案。
D.    所有Sepphoris的镶嵌工艺所描绘的动物都可以被辨认为已知物种。该选项不涉及“果”。
E.     Correct. 没有一套罗马帝国所共用的镶嵌工艺的设计模板。该选项可以提供另外一个除掉结论外的原因来解释“果”。因为用了模板,所以纵然没有这个动物,也能雕刻成这个动物的样子。属于CQ1:说明结果问题。

115.      属于CQ1:说明结果问题。(它因)

In countries where automobile insurance includes compensation for whiplash injuries sustained in automobile accidents, reports of having suffered such injuries are twice as frequent as they are in countries where whiplash is not covered.  Some commentators have argued, correctly, that since there is presently no objective test for whiplash, spurious reports of whiplash injuries cannot be readily identified.  These commentators are, however, wrong to draw the further conclusion that in the countries with the higher rates of reported whiplash injuries, half of the reported cases are spurious:  clearly, in countries where automobile insurance does not include compensation for whiplash, people often have little incentive to report whiplash injuries that they actually have suffered.

In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?

A. The first is evidence that has been used to support a conclusion that the argument criticizes; the second is that conclusion.
B. The first is evidence that has been used to support a conclusion that the argument criticizes; the second is the position that the argument defends.
C. The first is a claim that has been used to support a conclusion that the argument accepts; the second is the position that the argument defends.
D. The first is an intermediate conclusion that has been used to support a conclusion that the argument defends; the second is the position that the argument opposes.
E. The first presents a claim that is disputed in the argument; the second is a conclusion that has been drawn on the basis of that claim.


1.     由问题问法得知,此题是评估类的题目。
2.     找到前提和结论:

本题比较长,又是问黑体字的作用的题目,凡是这种题目,我们仅需分清楚哪个部分是什么样的推理模式,哪个部分在评估这种推理模式,哪里是结论就可以了。请记住,文章的position就是文章的主结论。


3.     判断推理模式:

这篇论证,其实整个是两个果因模式的推理。第一个黑体字给了一个现象(果),即:报告受伤的人多了两倍。在这之后,论证给了一个可能的原因(造假)。第二个黑体字给出了另外一个可能的原因(更愿意去报告自己真实的伤情。)



选项分析:

此处不再过多赘述选项的翻译,通过推理模式分析之后,答案非常容易。 答案为B或者C。

注意:在另一个版本中,“the higher rates of reported whiplash injuries, half of the reported cases are spurious”这个句子为第二个黑体字部分,这个时候答案是A。我想标准的版本应该是这个选A的版本。毕竟GMAT题目不可能有两个选项同时正确。如果想现在这个黑体字方式,B或者C都可以。这个题目有很多的版本,请大家以了解本题基本的推理模式为主。
板凳
 楼主| 发表于 2013-10-25 23:46:07 | 只看该作者
soulwangh 发表于 2013-10-25 22:14
这种题实际上用helr的分类就是果因推理,用新东方的分类就是BA型推理,用bible 就是cause-effect 推理。
首 ...

谢谢ls的回答~~~
也就是说 这种 无音必无果的加强方式不是100%的咯?
我时间有限,没有研读过helr的逻辑- - 关于新东方的那个AB  BA 一开始做过陈向东那边逻辑书,实在感觉他的思路很难理解.....囧

再问一下:我看过bible笔记 自己也在分类做CR的题,但是感觉对选项的瞬间排除能力还是很弱。。。我好像只能完全读懂题目的情况下才会做题。。。所以就担心,考场上时间又紧迫万一读不懂题....那就悲剧了
地板
发表于 2013-10-25 23:54:55 | 只看该作者
zhudanqing 发表于 2013-10-25 23:46
谢谢ls的回答~~~
也就是说 这种 无音必无果的加强方式不是100%的咯?
我时间有限,没有研读过helr的逻辑- ...

如果读不懂题 我想谁也没有办法去做题 一开始我也想找到一个捷径:模式或者套路的东西 希望就算读不懂也可以找到一些简捷办法 但是无果  就算是helr的笔记 你也能够感觉到一些生拉硬套的感觉
个人感觉CR本身比较灵活,套路并不固定,所以阅读理解是CR第一步。有必要时读慢一点。
5#
 楼主| 发表于 2013-10-25 23:59:20 | 只看该作者
soulwangh 发表于 2013-10-25 23:54
如果读不懂题 我想谁也没有办法去做题 一开始我也想找到一个捷径:模式或者套路的东西 希望就算读不懂也 ...

谢谢~~~感觉吃了个定心丸= =
虽然学渣我复习得还没有很多(虽然也马上要考了= =)但是我感觉只要题目读懂了,好像错误的概率就很低-  -(要么就是自己思维定势神马的。。。)
6#
发表于 2013-10-26 00:19:50 | 只看该作者
zhudanqing 发表于 2013-10-25 23:59
谢谢~~~感觉吃了个定心丸= =
虽然学渣我复习得还没有很多(虽然也马上要考了= =)但是我感觉只要题目读 ...

很多时候Gmat瓶颈不是技巧啥啥的,就是阅读理解,技巧仅是锦上添花。其实你做陈向东的那本书试试用中文做,其实不也很简单么?如果马上要考了,个人觉得把之前的做过题目多读一读,一些逻辑的表达方式,题中每一句话所要表示的意思和作用在有意识地去理解一下。这个比再做题要强。
7#
发表于 2014-3-27 21:29:15 | 只看该作者
soulwangh 发表于 2013-10-25 22:14
这种题实际上用helr的分类就是果因推理,用新东方的分类就是BA型推理,用bible 就是cause-effect 推理。
首 ...

谢谢2L回答~尤其是非A->非B是加强的那一段,让我豁然开朗~
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