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a)常见的推理错误类型 i.偷换概念 ii.个人攻击(Source Argument) 1.Focusing on the motives of the source. 2.Focusing on the actions of the source iii.循环论证(premise->conclusion=premise) 1.“This essay is the best because it is better than all the others.” iv.条件推理错误 1.错误的将必要条件作为充分条件 2.错误的将充分条件作为必要条件 v.因果错误 1.混淆时间顺序和因果关系 2.混淆相关关系和因果关系 3.忽略存在他因或同为它果 4.因果倒置 vi.浑水摸鱼,装傻充愣(Straw Man) 1.曲解对方观点,以削弱对方观点。 vii.无关信息 viii.自相矛盾:“introduce information that actually contradicts the conclusion” ix.诉诸于X 1.诉诸于权威 2.诉诸于大众 3.诉诸于情感 x.调查错误Survey Errors 1.有偏样本 2.调查问题模糊survey question is confusing or misleading 3.回答者的错误回应 xi.个例泛化Exceptional Case/Overgeneralization 1.Some=>all xii.特例泛化,总体特殊化 1.author attributes a characteristic of part of the group to the group as a whole or to each member of the group. a)我去过的每个party都是美好的,所以生活是美好的。 2.author attributes a characteristic of the whole (or each member of the whole) to a part of the group. a)美国是最富有的国家,所以每个美国人都是富有的。 xiii.错误类比False Analogy 1.ccurs when the author uses an analogy that too dissimilar to the original situation to beapplicable xiv.虚假两难False Dilemma错误的认为只有两种可能性。 1.A False Dilemma assumes that only two courses of action are available when there may be others. xv.证据错用 1.证真证伪必有证据“treating the failure to establish that a certain claim is false as equivalent to a demonstration that the claim is true” a)缺乏证据证伪:Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false. b)缺乏反面证据证真:Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is true. 2.反例只能削弱,不足以证伪Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is false. 3.例证只能加强,不能证真Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true. xvi.时移错误Time Shift Errors 1.用过去的证据论证现在 2.历史不能类比 xvii.数字游戏 1.利润=销售额-成本 a)必须知道其中两个量才能知道第三个量 i.当成本不固定时,利润和销售额相关性未知。 ii.当成本固定时,利润和销售额正相关。 2.销售额=售价*销售量 a)必须知道其中两个量才能知道第三个量 i.当售价未固定时,销售量和销售额相关性未知 ii.当售价固定时,销售量和销售额度正相关。 3.相对量绝对量错误Numbers and Percentages a)公式1:百分比=数字量/总体 i.当总体不固定时,百分比与数字量相关性未知。 1.大的绝对量不一定相应的相对量大 2.绝对量增加不一定相对量增加 3.I & II viceversa ii.当总体固定式,百分比和数字量正相关 b)公式2:x公司市场份额=x公司销售额/行业市场总销售 i.当行业市场总销量不固定时,市场份额和销售额相关性未知。 1.大的市场份额不一定相应的销售额多。 2.市场份额增长不一定相应的销售增长 3.I & II viceversa ii.当行业市场总销量固定时,市场份额和销售额正相关
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