|
1作者的论点(proposition), 主张(claim),或结论(conclusion) 2作者的假设(assumption)即阶段性的小结论或推论，也可以理解为结论成立的基本前提 3作者的论据(evidence),包括事实和基于事实的谨慎的推理(reasoning) 然后分析： 1论据是否可靠 2该段论述是否做了没有证据的假设 3结论是否能由结论得出 4该段论述是否忽略了其他能够加强或减弱argument的因素或信息
1分析文中的推理思路以及证据的使用 2评价题目论证思路的说服力（逻辑的合理性） 3用合理的推理或相关的例证来支持自己的批判 4谈谈什么能够让题目的论证更有说服力及什么能让自己更好地评价该论证
经典五段式： 第一段 开头 unsubstantiated:not proved to be true by evidence eg:an unsubstantiated claim/rumor flimsy: difficultto believe eg:a flimsy excuse/explanation fallacious: wrong;based on a false idea eg: a fallacious argument/conclusion erroneous: notcorrect; based on wrong information eg:erroneous conclusions/assumptions 1. The argument that ....omits some important concerns thatmust be addressed to substantiate the argument 第二段 正文 1. 指出推理或论证中出现的谬误 2. 提出改进建议 3. 寻求其他解释 4. 举出反例 5. 解剖推理过程 转折过渡词 1. 承上启下 The major problemwith this argument is that.../ Another problem that weakens/ undermines thelogic of this argument is that.../ Before I cone to my conclusion, it isnecessary to point out another flawa that undermines the argument. 2. 例证 for instance 3. 假设 given that/granted that/ unless the arguer provides substantial evidence regarding/concerning/ as to..., the assumpton that... is unfounded/ problematic/unconvicing 4. 推测 it is possiblethat, it is equally possible that..., another possibility is that, it is alsolikely that... 常用主题句（Topic Sentence） 1. another assumption short of legitimacy isthe casual relationship claimed between... and... 2. given that, the author made a prematureconclusion 3. the author commit a fallacy that...(fallacy:a false idea that many people believe is true or a false way of thingking aboutsth eg:He detected the fallacy of her argument. That the world is flat was atone time a polupular fallacy.) 4. the arguer fails to acknowledge andrule out/ eliminate/ exclude other possibilities that... 5. the arguer fails to take into account thepossibilities that... 6. the arguer's aconclusion depends on thequesionable assumption that... 7. the argument depends on(rest on/ relieson) the gratuitous/ unreasonable assumptions that... (gratuitous:done without any good reason or purpose and often having harmful effects eg:gratuitous violence on television) 8. the evidence provide in the argument is notsufficient tovalidate the assumption that... 9. the evidence cannot lend support to theassertion that... 10. the fact that... accomplises nothingtowards bolstering... (bolster: to improve sth or make it strongereg: Both sides offered statistics to bolster their arguments) 11. the reasoning that... is open todoubt 12. the second assumption lacking legitimacy/without justification is that... 13. the statistical evidence/ the result ofthe survey upon which the argument relies is too vague to be informative. 14. we cannot safely infer that... from themere fact that... 15. Most conspiciously, the argumentdoesnot address the cause of the problem of... (conspicious: easy to see ornotice; likely to attract attention eg:Women were conspiciously absent from theplanning committee.) 第三段 结尾 1. As it stands, the argument is not wellreasoned. To make it logically acceptable, the arguer should demonstratethat...Additionally, the arguer must provide evidence to rule out all theabove-mentioned possibilities that might weaken the argument/ more specificevidence to validate the assumptions. 2. In conclusion, the arguer fails to justifythe claims that...To solidify the argument, the arguer should supply moreconcrete information to demonstrate that... In addition, the arguer would haveto rule out the above mentioned possibilities that may undermine the argument. 3. In conclusion, the argument is notpersuasive as it stands. To make it more convicing, the arguer would have toprovide more evidence concerning.../provide evidence to rule out other possiblecauses of... To better evaluate the argument, we would need more informationregarding... 4. To conclude, though the argument seems tobe plausible, it is actually neither sound nor persuasive.(plausible: of an excuse or explanation reasonable and likely to be true eg:Theonly plausible exlanation is that he fogot 5. To conclude, this argument is notpersuasive as it stands. Accordingly, it is imprudent for theauthor to claim that... To make this argument logically acceptable, the authorwould have to show that... In addition, to solidify the conclusion, the authorshould provide concrete evidence as well to demonstrate that... Only with moreconvincing evidence could this argument become more than just an emotionalappeal. (imprudent: not wise or sensible eg: It would beimprudent to invest all your money in one company. It is imprudent to rush intosomething without thingking what may happen.)
- non-causal relationship 非因果关系逻辑错误
1. correlation mistaken for causasion将相关性当做因果关系: the argument depends on an umprovencause-and-effect relationship between...and...The reason for ...mighthave nothing to do with either,,,or ,,,For instance..For that matter...Withoutruling out these and other alternative explanations for... the author cannotreasonably conclude that... will have any effect on that cause(for that matter:used to add a comment on sth that you have just said eg: Ididn't like it much.Nor did the kids, for that matter.) 2. post hoc ergo propter hoc后此谬误: The authorassumes that... cause...The line of reasoning is that because...before..., theformer event caused the latter. But this is fallacious reasoningunless other possible causal explanations have been considered and ruled out.For example, perhaps...Or perhaps... Yet another possibility is that... 3. confuse the cause and effect混淆因果关系：It is possiblethat the mayor has confused cause with effectrespecting...Perhaps...Since...has failed to account for this possibility, theclaim that...is completely umfounded. Some other possible causes of... alsoshould not be ignored. Without ruling out these and other alternativeexplanations for... cannot reasonably infer based on those trends that... 4. causal oversimplification因果关系简化：
- the fallacy of analogy and comparison 比较与类比逻辑错误
1. the fallacy of faulty analogy错误类比：It is highlydoubtful that the facts drawn from..are applicable to...Differeces betwee thetwo industries clearly outweigh the similarities, thus making the analogy lessthan valid. For example, problems of... all affect...but are virtually absentin...Perhaps such these might present insurmountable obstaclesthat prevent.... (insurmountable: of difficulties, problems, that cannt bedealt with successfully) 2. incomplete or sellective comparison不完整比较或选择性比较： The argument wasbased on the assumption that...However, we are not given enough informationabout the study to be sure that this comparison is reliable.
- problems concerning data 数据相关逻辑错误
1. the insufficient sample fallacy 不充分采样错误：（1）样本作为整体的一个部分必须具有足够大的数量the conclusionthat...is based on too small a sample to be reliable；（2）样本在相关的特性方面必须具有整体的代表性 the only evidenceoffered in support of this conclusion is the fact that...Unless it can be shownthat... is typical of all... thae fact that... is not grounds for concludingtaht... will experience similar results/ the example cited, while suggestiveof... is insufficient to warrant their truth because there is no reason tobelieve that data draw from... is representative of the entire... 2. the biased-sample fallacy有偏采样错误：the survey methodology might beproblematic in two respects.（1）对调查的答复必须是可信的、真实的、准确的，需要参与调查的人保证不因为某些原因而给出不完整或者虚假的回复；（2）收集数据的方法必须公正，要避免在调查中，对问题的回答不做硬性要求，或者问题的设计使得参与者易于用某种特定的回答方式 in either event,the survey results would be unreliable for the purpose of drawing anyconclusions about...let alone about... (a)who conducted the survey? -the poll cited by the author isdescribed in the vaguest possible terms. The ad does not indicate who conductedthe poll, who respond, or how the poll was conducted. Unless these questionsare answered, the survey results are worthless as evidence for public opinionabout... (b)are the statistics misleadingly vague? (c)when was the survey conducted?
- sufficient evidence and necessary condition充分条件与必要条件逻辑错误
1. sufficient-condition problems 充分条件问题 2. necessary-condision problems 必要条件问题 3. sufficient and necessary conditionproblems 充要条件问题 In order todo A, B should do C...只有B做C，A才能实现；只要B做了C，A就一定能实现
- composition and division 整体与部分逻辑错误
1. what is true for a group is also true forany member 适用与整体的原则也适用于整体的任一个个体 while thisreasoing may be sound in a generl sense, the particular XXX involved in may notbe representative of XXX generally. 2. what is true for a member is also true forthe group 对某个个体适用的东西对整体也适用 the most egregiousreasoning error in... is ....in this region as the basis for a generalizationabout all... 3. the fallacy of hastygeneralization/neglect of relevant evidence从几个个体所具有的某个特性推出整体也具有这个特性（急于概括）
- assuming aa things remain unchanged overtime 假定所有的事情都是一成不变类逻辑错误
1. past conditions remain unchanged in thepresent and future 过去的情况在今天和将来都保持不变 however, a recentone-year increase is insufficient evidence itself to convince me that thistrend will continue 2. present conditons will remain unchanged inthe future 目前情况在将来保持不变 the argumentassumes that relative supply conditions will remain unchanged over the next 20years. However...may fluctuate greatly over a long time period...Withoutconsidering other factors that contribute to...the firm cannot justify itsrecommendation.
- false dilemma/ either-or thinking/ the black-white fallacy 错误的两难境地类逻辑错误
the author assumes that reducing XXX and XXX are mutuallyexclusive alternatives. However, the author provides no reason for imposing aneither-or choice. 1. failing to weighing the advantages anddisavantages thoroughly 考虑问题不全面 2. failing to define important terms 没有限定重要词语 3. circular reasoning / tautology/ beggingthe question 循环论证: 在原题论述中，如果发现有重要假设没有任何论据支持，就可以就其循环论证的逻辑缺陷展开攻击 4. drawing a conclusion that is too board indegree or scope 得出的结论在程度或范围上过于广泛 5. relying on vague or ambiguous evidence 依赖于模棱两可的证据：要注意留意原论述中用some, many,several来代替具体的百分比或数字的地方 6. arguing simultaneously for two competingobjectives 同时为两个相对立的目标辩论：在某些文章中，作者有时会试图同时为两个看起来相互对立的目标辩论，换句话说，如果作者想完成其中的一个目标，就会减小完成另一个目标的可能性 7. irrational appeals 无理呼吁：包括诉诸于权威或情感 8. ad hominem/ personal attack人身攻击 9. straw argument 稻草人：树立一个易被攻击的靶子，忽略真正的问题;或者强加一个作者没有提及的易被攻击的问题 10. false or questionable authority 错误权威
| 
京公网安备11010202008513号 京ICP证101109号 京ICP备12012021号
发表于 2013-8-25 14:11:32
收藏
收藏
