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Apple's Lion Is Latest to JoinDownload-Only Trend in Software
Apple's new version ofits desktop operating system for Mac computers is called Mac OS X Lion. Applesays this latest OS X upgrade has over two hundred new features. But one bigdifference is how the company will sell it. The release is download-only.
Apple says Lion iscoming to its App Store in July. The price is twenty-nine dollars andninety-nine cents. Users without the current version, Snow Leopard, will haveto pay an extra thirty dollars to download the new release.
Last year, Apple hadmore than five hundred million dollars in sales of its desktop operatingsystem.
Experts saydownload-only software is getting more common.
Dave Wolf is VicePresident for Strategy at Cynergy Systems in Washington. His company helpssoftware designers to develop and market products. He says the computer thatmany people use most is their mobile phone.
People who download appsto smartphones have come to expect quick and easy software updates. Now, DaveWolf says phones are shaping expectations for other computers.
DAVE WOLF: "I thinkthis is a case where we’re seeing the same consumer demand, say, in a phonemarket moving to the desktop and the same consumer demand moving into work inthe enterprise."
Downloadable programsmean fewer trips to stores to buy software. But that can also mean fewer salesfor stores that depend on physical products, including most video games. Andnot everyone has a high-speed Internet connection to make downloads quick andeasy.
But Dave Wolf says thecost savings are a big help to small businesses trying to reach a wide market.
DAVE WOLF: "I thinkit’s a boon to small software companies and entrepreneurs who have incredibleideas and want to get them out to market.”
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He says the Internetradio service Pandora, for example, can offer free music because it has nocosts of selling discs in stores. This week Pandora began selling shares ofstock to the public.
Next to go may besoftware stored on individual computers. Many companies are moving to cloudcomputing. The idea is to save money by storing software on somebody else'sservers in large data centers.
This way people caneasily access their music library or other applications from any device. Thisis not the case for users of Apple's iTunes. Now Apple thinks it has a solutionwith a cloud-computing service called iCloud.
And Microsoft hasdeveloped Windows Azure. This platform is for businesses and softwaredevelopers to use Internet-based applications.
And that's the VOASpecial English Economics Report. You can read and listen to our programs atvoaspecialenglish.com. I’m Mario Ritter.

Who Should Be the NextChief of the IMF?The InternationalMonetary Fund will need to find a new leader. Dominique Strauss-Kahn hasresigned as managing director. Mr. Strauss-Kahn is charged with a sexual attackon a cleaning woman at a New York hotel last Saturday. He said in a resignationletter released Thursday by the IMF that he denies the charges "with thegreatest possible firmness."
His fall has especiallyshocked Europe. The IMF is currently playing a major part in rescue loans toGreece, Ireland and Portugal. European nations have increasingly depended onthe fund to help them in their recent struggles with debt.
The IMF and the WorldBank grew out of an international conference held in the United States innineteen forty-four. They were created as ways to support economic cooperationand development.
Both are both based inWashington. The World Bank has traditionally been led by an American and theIMF by a European.
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But fast-growingeconomies in the developing world say it is time for a change. Officials fromBrazil, China and India say Mr. Strauss-Kahn's replacement should come fromoutside Europe.
German Chancellor AngelaMerkel, leader of Europe's biggest economy, disagrees.
ANGELA MERKEL: "Inthe present situation, when we have significant problems with the euro and theIMF is very much involved there, there should be a European candidate withsupport from the international community."
Themain job of the IMF is to help make sure payments flow smoothly betweennations. Sometimes this means providing loans so governments can meet debtpayments.
The money it lends comesmostly from "quotas" -- financial promises made by its members. Onehundred eighty-seven nations belong to the IMF. The lender currently has abouttwo hundred fifty billion dollars in approved loans. Most of these loans havenot yet been used, or drawn down.
What effect theresignation of Dominique Strauss-Kahn will have is unclear. He was praised as askillful negotiator in dealing with Europe and the global financial crisis.
STEPHANIE RICKARD:"But the actual negotiations of the loan conditions on the ground is doneby technocratic economists, staff members at the IMF, and they’re going tocontinue to do their job."
Stephanie Rickard is anexpert on the IMF and World Bank at the London School of Economics.
Dominique Strauss-Kahnbecame managing director in two thousand seven. The Frenchman widely known asDSK is a member of France's Socialist party. Before his arrest, he wasconsidered a leading candidate for France's presidential election next year.
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Shortage of InternetAddresses, but a Slow Move to New SystemLast Wednesday,June eighth, was World IPv6 Day -- the first major deployment of InternetProtocol version 6. Hundreds of Internet service providers and Web companiestested IPv6 on their websites.
This new numberingsystem for Internet addresses has been available for years. But very fewcompanies have switched to it. Yet the old system could run out of addressesthis year because of all the growth in online devices. Doug Szajda, a computerscience professor at the University of Richmond in Virginia, explains.
DOUG SZAJDA: "It’ssort of like the post office of the Internet. It tells you how to getinformation from one computer to another. Currently, and since around nineteeneighty, the addressing system has been IP version 4. But the problem with thatis that we’ve run out of addresses. So it’s almost as if, when a new house isbuilt, you can’t give it an address because you don’t have any more."
IPv4 was designed tohandle just over four billion IP addresses. Doug Szajda says that seemed likemore than enough
DOUG SZAJDA: "Atthe time that IP version 4 was designed, the designers were anticipatingperhaps thousands of users of the Internet someday, and certainly thinking thatfour billion addresses was many more than we would ever need."
Yet now, not justcomputers but smartphones, cars, televisions, game systems and plenty of otherdevices all connect to the Internet. Each uses a different IP address.
The basic standards forIPv6 were first published in nineteen ninety-eight. Doug Szajda says its mostimportant feature is the ability to provide what seems like an unlimited numberof IP addresses. Well, there is a limit -- three hundred forty trilliontrillion trillion in fact, or three hundred forty undecillion. That's three hundredforty followed by thirty-six zeros.
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Experts say thechallenge now is to get the world to use it. Mr. Szajda says that was the realpurpose of last week’s World IPv6 Day sponsored by the Internet Society.
DOUG SZAJDA: "Itwas less a worldwide test than a means of generating some incentive for vendorsto realize we can’t drag our feet anymore. This has to happen.”
The process of switchingto IPv6 can be complex and costly. This could explain why so few companies havemade the switch. CompTIA, the Computing Technology Industry Association,recently did an opinion study. The group talked to more than four hundredinformation technology and business leaders in the United States. Onlytwenty-one percent said they have started doing work to upgrade their networksto the new system.
And that's the VOASpecial English Technology Report, written by June Simms. For more technologynews, go to voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.
People WithChronic Hepatitis B Often Do Not Know ItToday we answer aquestion. Vu Quang Hien from Vietnam wants to know more about hepatitis B.Hepatitis is the name for a group of viral infections that attack the liver.These are called A, B, C and so on.
An estimated two billionpeople are infected with hepatitis B. The rates are highest in China and other partsof Asia. The World Health Organization says most of these infections happenduring childhood.
Hepatitis B is spreadthrough contact with infected blood or other body fluids. Mothers can infectbabies at birth. Unsafe injections and sexual contact can also spread thevirus. Experts say it can survive outside the body for at least a week.
There are two forms ofhepatitis B -- acute and chronic. Acute cases last for several weeks, althoughrecovery can take months. Chronic cases can lead to death from cirrhosis orscarring of the liver and liver cancer.
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Yet people withlong-term liver infections can live for years and not even know they areinfected. The ones most likely to develop chronic hepatitis B are youngchildren.
In the United States,experts at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention urge medicalproviders to test Asian-American patients.
DR. JOHN WARD: "Thebottom line -- since most people of Asian heritage came to the US from endemiccountries or were born to parents from these countries, they should be screenedfor chronic hepatitis B."
For acute hepatitis B,patients may receive care to replace lost fluids, but there are no treatments.Doctors can treat chronic cases with interferon and antiviral drugs. But thesemedicines cost too much for most of the world's poor.
A vaccine to preventhepatitis B has been available for thirty years. The researcher who discoveredthis vaccine -- and hepatitis B itself -- was an American named BaruchBlumberg. Dr. Blumberg also showed that the virus could cause liver cancer.

NASADr. BaruchBlumberg
He and anotherresearcher at the Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia, Irving Millman,invented the vaccine in nineteen sixty-nine. But Dr. Blumberg said it took sometime to find a drug company willing to produce it.
He first becameinterested in studying infectious disease when he volunteered in Surinam duringhis medical training.
His discoveries withhepatitis B saved many lives and earned him a Nobel Prize in medicine. But healso had other interests -- including the search for life in outer space.
In the late nineties, hehelped launch the Astrobiology Institute at NASA. He was at a space agencyconference in California in April when he died, apparently of a heart attack.Baruch Blumberg was eighty-five years old.
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第五篇：差七行。。。
状态暴差。。。

olivia瓜瓜

kimwang53 发表于 2013-5-14 00:10
寝室同学有电话的建议去图书馆或者自习室。加油！

谢谢，，加油加油。。

kimwang53

寝室同学有电话的建议去图书馆或者自习室。加油！

olivia瓜瓜

【越障1-8】System-level energy efficiency is the greatest barrier to development of

The hydrogen economy concept proposes hydrogen is an energycommodity like electricity or gasoline which individuals purchase to carry outtheir activities and supply energy services. Originally proposed in the early1970s, the hydrogen economy postulated that hydrogen could be generated from arange of energy resources and distributed through transmission networks toprovide energy services in a similar way as electricity is currently used (Bockris, 1972; Anon, 1973; Gregory, 1973; Rifkin, 2002). The hydrogenwould be generated by renewable resources and stored, then converted back toelectricity using fuel cells. The hydrogen transport system would function inmuch the same way as the current system, but would not require imported liquidfossil fuel, would not produce local air pollution and would have lower CO2emissions.Although hydrogen is currently produced in significant quantitiesduring petrochemical refining and reforming processes, it is primarily useddirectly as a chemical feedstock, for example in production of methanol andammonia.These applications are not considered components of the hydrogeneconomy, asthe hydrogen is not used for providing an energy service.6 P* Q! f4 f) \
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The hydrogeneconomy concept has led to research investment in related sciences and intechnology development projects including distributed power, combined heat andpower, back-up power and fuel cell vehicles. The full manifestation of thehydrogen economy vision includes not only freedom from imported oil, but socialliberation of consumers who will be empowered to create their own hydrogen athome from solar cells or cheap electricity, store their hydrogen, fuel theirown vehicles and generate electricity for their homes. By producing and storinghydrogen locally, people would be able to power the grid at peak times (Vaitheeswaran, 2003).
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Pursuit of thehydrogen economy is motivated by several critical issues, energy security andenvironmental impacts. Commonly cited benefits of using hydrogen gas as anenergy commodity are listed below:* N' h# r% |4 [: G
?Efficiency—fuel cells have higher theoretical conversion efficiency thaninternal combustion engines or power cycles.& R) f# u2 g9 x"U( @+ L
?Flexibility—a range of renewable and non-renewable energy resources can beutilised for hydrogen production by electrolysis or reforming.
?Environmental—water is the only by-product of hydrogen conversion either byelectrochemical reaction or combustion.! @. E# z( P' p0 B9 \
? EnergyStorage—hydrogen produced by electrolysis from excess capacity in renewableelectricity could be stored.
? Security oftransport fuel—local energy resources would be used to produce hydrogen, thusreducing economic and political risks from imported oil.
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The vision ofa renewable, secure,non-polluting transport fuel is highly attractive in lightof political issues and environmental concerns. Public interest, politicalsupport and high-profile industrial research involvement have resulted ingovernment research funding in virtually every developed country.. m, Y; X9 c$ z% @9 Q
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New Zealandpolicy has been to support hydrogen and fuel cell research with the focus beingon “early adoption” of technologies developed in other countries and deliveredto the international market. Over the past 8 years, government research fundingin this area has increased to just over 13% of the $14.6 million(NZD)energy-related expenditures (MORST, 2006 Ministry of ResearchScience and Technology (MORST), 2006. Energy Research, Road maps for Science,NZ.MORST, 2006). The research ismostly conducted at Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) and Crown OwnedEnterprises, with some projects at universities (MED, 2005; IRL, 2005; FRST, 2008). Recent hydrogenprojects include:
? Integrationand testing of domestic-scale alkaline fuel cell systems including thedevelopment of a continuous carbon dioxide scrubber;
?Investigation into hydrogen and PEM fuel cell systems for remote powersupplies, back-up power systems andresidential applications;
? Hydrogenproduction from renewable sources and from lignite coal via gasification;  p0 l% |2 a/ g3f
? Materialsresearch in the area of reformer and electrolyser catalysts, high-temperaturefuel cell electrolytes,hydrogen membrane separators and hydrogen storagematerials.4 f( B# \  s4 Y  i/ K" i% j
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In addition todomestic research,New Zealand is a member of the International Partnership fora Hydrogen Economy and the International Energy Agency (IEA) HydrogenImplementation Agreement.Although the New Zealand government at the strategiclevel states “technical issues are likely to prevent hydrogen having anythingother than niche uses for the next 25–30 years” (MED, 2007c) researchexpenditure on the hydrogen economy continues. One of the current researchprojects involves identifying and overcoming the barriers to implementation ofthe hydrogen economy in New Zealand (FRST, 2007). Despite policyfocus and the significant amount of government expenditure on the hydrogeneconomy, the benefits of a hydrogen economy to New Zealand have not yet beenquantified in any government strategy document or in any of the publications ofCRIs. The life cycle assessment of hydrogen compared to electricity hasdemonstrated that using renewable energy for electric vehicles prevented twicethe green house gas emissions as an equivalent hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (Hammerschlag and Mazza, 2005).A thermodynamic analysis of the different concepts for hydrogen generation,transport andstorage by Bossel (2006) unequivocally demonstratesthat a hydrogen economy “will never make sense”.

The aim ofthis paper is to quantitatively examine the operation of the key elements ofthe energy system for a hydrogen economy within the New Zealand energy context.The hydrogen energy systems proposed in the policy advice document, EnergyScape (CRL Energy Ltd. 2007), willbe compared with alternative energy systems. The system analysis will includeenergy conversion,transmission and energy service demand conversion. Theanalysis uses either the existing energy infrastructure in New Zealand or acomparable technology model.Hydrogen would be generated through chemicaldecomposition using some primary energy resource, transported through adistribution system and converted back to electricity to provide an energyservice. The key measure of performance for the hydrogen economy is taken asthe system-level efficiency, defined as the energy load provided to the end userdivided by primary energy resource input.Other potential benefits (such asthose listed above) will be discussed, and the utility of the New Zealandgovernmental expenditure on the hydrogen economy, and future policy directionswill be suggested.% f, \% Y3 M3 H/ ^: t7 f

Section 2 of this paper describesNew Zealand's consumer demand for energy, highlighting the unsustainable andenvironmental damaging aspects of New Zealand energy consumption.Section 3 describes the hydrogen energychains that have been proposed for research and development in New Zealand. Section 4 describes the methodologyand assumptions used of the energy chain analysis. Section 5 describes the results ofthe hydrogen energy chain analysis for New Zealand, and the system-levelefficiency compared to the existing or an alternative energy system. Additionalbenefits provided by the hydrogen economy, such as reduced emissions or theability to store energy, are described on a case by case basis. Section 6 concludes the paper withanalysis of policy implications relevant to New Zealand.
10分钟05s哎。。。。。

olivia瓜瓜

越障1——5
How to Graduate Into a Great Career



By Rick Newman



Posted: May 27, 2011




http://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/flowchart/2011/05/27/how-to-graduate-into-a-great-career

If you've graduated from college over the last few years, you probably don't need anyone to tell you that your timing sort of sucks.

Even now, two years after the recession officially ended, jobs remain scarce. Younger workers have some advantages, since they can work for less and usually don't have families to support. Yet the unemployment rate for workers between ages 25 and 29 is 10.2 percent, and for those between 20 and 24, it's 14.9 percent—significantly higher than the overall unemployment rate of 9 percent. The prospects for college grads are better, but even so, recent research shows that more than half of young workers with a bachelor's degree end up working as cashiers, clerks, waiters, or customer-service reps, jobs that don't even require a degree. Many recent grads have been forced to endure an even worse indignity: moving back in with their parents.

But wait a few years before tearing up that diploma. It's a brutal job market for just about every age group, yet there are hopeful signs for people willing to get the right skills and take the other steps needed to set themselves up for success. Companies are finally hiring, for one thing, adding about 200,000 jobs per month so far this year, on average. That's not great, but it's still the best pace of hiring since 2007. Many young workers come pre-loaded with the kinds of technology and social-media skills that employers increasingly need. They've also got a lot more time to adjust to turbulent changes in the job market than baby boomers or others close to retirement. And a few industries—mostly related to technology—are booming, proving that at least parts of the economy will enjoy healthy growth in the future.

You've probably heard all the tactical advice for getting a good job: Be persistent. Get relevant experience. Network relentlessly. Wear a decent suit to interviews. Purge those beer-bong photos from your Facebook page. While you do all that, here are six more strategic tips for jump-starting your career:

Know what kinds of jobs are available. This sounds elementary, yet far too many people look for the kind of job they want, not the kind of job that companies are offering. That's one reason that even now, with 14 million unemployed Americans, some companies that want to hire can't find the kinds of workers they need. Some of the unemployed are looking for jobs based on skills they learned awhile ago, which may no longer be relevant. Others simply want to do work they enjoy, even if few employers are willing to pay for. If you majored in art history and want to be a museum curator, that's fine—as long as you realize that job openings are likely to be scarce, the competition tough, and the pay low.

It's not hard to figure out what kinds of jobs are available these days. Job-search site Indeed.com, for instance, tabulates the hottest job trends based on the most common keywords in the millions of job postings it tracks. Not surprisingly, every one of the top 10 trends on its most recent list relates to technology, in fields such as mobile apps, social media, and cloud computing. To get a more specific idea of the needs in your field, network your way to people willing to give you a bit of advice, and drill down to get as much specificity as you can. You might be surprised to learn that while there aren't too many curatorial jobs at museums, Web developers or design firms are increasingly interested in hiring people with an artistic background. If they are, adapt your skills, adjust your expectations, and go get that job.

Know what companies want. Math, analytical, and engineering skills are in demand, but so are "soft skills" that are hard to feature on a resume. Soft skills are the things that everybody claims they have, but few actually do—a knack for leadership, a personable way with customers and co-workers, the ability to think creatively about problems and solve them quickly. Recommendations are one way to demonstrate that you truly do have "strong interpersonal skills," but expect companies to be skeptical, since it's hard to prove that you actually do.

To some extent, job interviews are one way to show off your soft skills. "Be truthful in terms of what you have to offer," says Breck Marshall, a partner at consulting firm Accenture who advises big firms on hiring and recruiting. "Articulate what you can do. Bring your experiences to life in an interview. Demonstrate how you have the types of qualities they're looking for." And to make sure you know what they're looking for, research each firm in advance and learn as much as you can about its culture.

There's a lot of evidence that soft skills are at least as important as formal education in determining an individual's success—but companies aren't in the mood to gamble on employees these days, so you'll have to prove yourself over time. That's why internships, part-time jobs, temp work, and contract positions can be a great way to start—they allow the company to try you out (and vice versa) before making a bigger commitment. The trick is to find a starter position that will expose you to the people able to make important hiring decisions and will lead to someplace you want to go. To figure it out, do as much research as you can and, if possible, find insiders willing to help guide you.

Move. You may be comfortable where you live, but if the economy is weak and companies aren't hiring, it could hold you back for a long time. In cities with a weak economy, getting started will take longer and there will be fewer opportunities at every step of your career. You probably won't meet the most dynamic people in your field, and the longer you stay in an economic backwater, the deeper the rut will get. Sure, moving is disruptive—but it'll seem a lot harder when you have a mortgage and a family than when you're young, with few commitments.

If it's not obvious where the action is in the field that interests you, start by looking where the biggest companies tend to be clustered. If you're interested in tech or social media, for instance, northern California—home of Google, Facebook, Apple, and many of the world's most prominent tech companies—would be an obvious place to start. If you're intimidated by the high cost of living, remember that one reason it's expensive to live there is that salaries are high, too. Indeed.com lists the job openings per capita in the nation's 50 largest cities, which is a nice snapshot of where the job market is strongest and weakest. Pair that kind of info with more detailed knowledge about your field, and you'll start to glean some useful guidance.

Also keep in mind that you may not need to move somewhere new before getting a job. Apply from afar, and if some good opportunities surface, then move. Companies may regard your mobility as a sign that you're willing to go where the action is. And don't rule out overseas locations, like Shanghai, Bangalore, or Sao Paolo. Big firms increasingly need Americans able to travel overseas, even in entry-level jobs.

Go back to school. Beginning the day after you graduate. Don't worry, you don't have to enroll in grad school right away and take on even more loans. What you do need to do is start filling in all the holes in your resume. Everybody has them, and the sooner you get used to constant learning, the better—it's one of the most important ways to get ahead, and make sure you stay ahead.

No matter what your degree, there's still a lot more you can learn—and a lot of it you can do on your own. If you majored in something technical, like math or engineering, take the time to learn more about social media, mobile technology, or writing. You may be able to find a job where you don't need those kinds of skills, but if you have two or three skill sets, instead of just one, your resume is more likely to land at the top of the pile. If you're a liberal arts grad, get some training in analytics or data mining, since it will help put your open-minded creativity to use in a tangible way that companies can bank on.

Supplemental education can be informal, based on your own reading, research, or online resources, or more formal training through a community college or adult-education program. Accenture even advises that some grads consider learning a trade after college, since a combination of hands-on skills and a business or marketing background might make you a standout hire in some industries. One area where there's a shortage of skilled professionals, for example, is beer brewing—since few people think to combine high-level management skills with the tradecraft of brewing, which can take years to learn.

Demean yourself. Sure, it can be demoralizing doing work for which you're overqualified. But it's a lot better than doing no work at all. You'll earn some money, even if it's not as much as you feel you deserve. You'll build a work ethic, which is a lot better than sitting home and complaining. Plus, there are millions of Americans right now who are underemployed, earning a lot less than they're used to, while retooling their skills and adjusting to the Darwinian demands of today's labor market. You're no exception, so do what you must to earn a living.

The danger of working beneath your skill level, of course, is that you'll never get the kind of experience needed to get ahead or launch a more fulfilling career. Marshall suggests developing a two-track plan in which you split your time between work spent developing a career, and work spent earning the money you need to support yourself. He advises "time-boxing" the career plan: devoting a set number of hours to it each week, whether they're spent working at an unpaid internship, researching job openings, networking, or learning an important new skill. As for that demoralizing day job, keep an open mind about that, too: Maybe there are management opportunities at that fast-food restaurant or clothing store where you're barely making minimum wage. Many senior executives have risen to the top by starting at the bottom. Think big.

Double up. If you already specialize in one thing, then specialize in two. That's one of the surest way to build a secure career and make the most of what you know. Healthcare is a growing field, for example, which is a why a lot of people are going into nursing, ambulatory care, and various technical specialties. But the growing pool of applicants means that pay and benefits are often modest, at best. Meanwhile, the need for people who specialize in information-technology for healthcare is growing faster than healthcare in general, because of the increasing use of digitized medical records and the growing reliance on technology to lower costs. That makes healthcare IT a growing field within a growing field. And since it requires a high degree of skill, the competition for jobs is likely to be light, which means bright prospects for pay and leadership opportunities.

In many traditional fields, including retail, food-service, publishing, manufacturing, and education, there's surging demand for workers who know the operational and management basics, and also know something about technology. The demands on your time—and your brain—might seem overwhelming, but here's an uncomfortable workplace secret: The old-timers feel the same relentless pressure. And chances are, they're not as energetic, or as idealistic, as you.

olivia瓜瓜

【越障1-6】

Today's Topic: urple;">Young adult outcomes and mental health problems among transition age youth investigated for maltreatment during adolescence
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The transitional period between late adolescence and young adulthood has been identified as a developmental stage marked by challenge and uncertainty ([Arnett, 2006] and [Furstenberg, 2000]).This stage, the transition to adulthood, is a critical time during which transition age youth need to juggle several developmental tasks ([Masten et al., 2004] and [Schwartz et al., 2005]). The developmental outcomes of this life-stage are generally measured in terms of normative functional markers, such as educational attainment, full time employment, self-sufficiency, and starting a family of one's own ([Cohen et al., 2003]and [Shanahan, 2000]). While this is a challenging time for any youth, coming from high-risk environments adds to the normal challenges of negotiating these developmental tasks ([Bynner, 2005]and[Cicchetti and Rogosch,2002]). For transition aged youth who have been involved with the child welfare system (CWS), the risks associated with the transition to adulthood are likely to be amplified.* e. P) k6 s5 D4 P5 H7 S7 k  b) O% t

In virtually every biopsychosocial domain, transitional youth at-risk from social disadvantage have worse outcomes than the general population of youth ([Collins, 2001] and [Courtney and Heuring,2005]). Research has established that the impact of cumulative psychosocial risks, such as child maltreatment, exposure to other traumatic events (e.g. community and/or domestic violence), family disruption, social disadvantage, and out-of-home placement, amplifies the impact of these risk factors on developmental outcomes (Appleyard, Egeland,Dulmen & Alan Sroufe, 2005). Youth involved with child welfare also evidence particularly high rates of behavioral and emotional disorders ([Burns et al., 2004] and [Lyons and Rogers, 2004]) and criminal justice system involvement (Grogan-Kaylor, Ruffolo,Ortega & Clarke, 2008). Several studies have confirmed higher rates of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems among youth involved with child welfare than among youth in the general population, even those receiving mental health services ([Keil and Price, 2006] and [Raghavan et al., 2006]). Other research has shown that experiencing any maltreatment during childhood increases the likelihood of behaviors that lead to juvenile justice system involvement (Jonson-Reid & Barth,2000). In particular, maltreatment in adolescence, regardless of type, appears to increase the chances of arrest,general and violent offending, and illicit drug use in young adulthood, even controlling for sociodemographic characteristics and prior levels of problem behavior ([Smith and Thornberry,1995] and [Wall and Kohl, 2007]).: B; A$ E$ n2 o5 w: w7 G( x! |

The functional demands of this transitional stage put transition age youth reported for abuse or neglect as adolescents in a highly vulnerable position. They face many critical risks to their well-being that are related not only to the challenges that characterize this developmental stage, but also to having been involved with a family investigated for child maltreatment. For instance, their ability to turn to their family for social and economic support may be compromised. Changes in the social context of the transition to adulthood have resulted in the extended dependency of transition age youth on their family ([Courtney et al., 2001] and [Mendes and Moslehuddin,2006]). The transition to adult self-sufficiency takes longer and requires the deployment of more social and economic resources than ever before (Arnett & Taber, 1994;[Bynner, 2005] and [Furstenberg, 2000]). The family plays an increasingly important role in cushioning the shock of these changes ([Fox et al., 2005], [Furstenberg and Hughes,1995] and[Settersten et al., 2005]). It has become normative for transition age youth to continue to rely heavily on their family during this developmental period, and to delay launching their independence in order to spend more time in the quest of educational and employment achievements
([Arnett, 2000], [Bynner, 2005] and [Osgood et al., 2005]). The lack of a supportive family or other social support represents increased riskof interrupted school achievement and residential instability, including homelessness and limited employment opportunities (Caspi et al., 1998 ,[Choca et al., 2004], [Daining and DePanfilis, 2007], [Keller et al., 2007] and [Zielinski and Bradshaw, 2006]).) f) ]/ y5 ^4 R2 ]  U: a# R

It is also likely that many transition aged youth involved with the CWS as adolescents are dealing with the impact of having their own children as they struggle with the developmental challenges of young adulthood ([Coley and Kihlstrom,2001] and [Jaffee et al., 2001]). There is evidence that delaying marriage and/or parenthood until achieving the developmental milestones of completing an education and finding secure employment improves the outcomes related to psychosocial functioning in adulthood ([Bozick and DeLuca, 2005], [Cohen et al., 2003] and [Meier and Allen, 2008]). Conversely marriage or parenthood at an early age has been linked with greater likelihood of divorce and single-parenthood,interrupted education, and inability to achieve economic self-sufficiency ([Furstenberg and Hughes,1995] and [Jekielek and Brown,2005]). In an intergenerational study of African American youth in Baltimore, daughters of high-risk teenage mothers who started their own families during the transition to adulthood had worse functional outcomes than that of their mothers a generation before (Furstenberg, Levine,Brooks-Gunn, 1990). Early marriage has been associated with social disadvantage as well as health problems in later adulthood, especially for already at-risk young adults (W



6分25S ，加油晚安

olivia瓜瓜

第一篇：差三行
第二篇：差四行
第三篇：差四行
第四篇：差四行】
第五篇：差五行

今天状态暴差，静不下心来看