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一、 代词指代 227 12 50 1、 .
主句在前从句在后，只有从句可以用代词。从句在前主句在后，谁用代词都可以。 2、 从句在前，主句在后。此时从句的主语可以清晰的指代为主句主语12。但是从句在后，主语在前，语法上是从句主语与主句主语相同，可是代词前往往出现其他干扰，此时就是指代不清。 OG209 The Senate approved immigration legislation that would grant permanent residency to millions of aliens currently residing here and if employers hired illegal aliens they would be penalized.分析
if employers hired illegal aliens they would be penalized中they 指代不明，从语法和逻辑上都是employers，但是they前面出现了aliens 3、代词指代只在自己完整的句子上指代。譬如上题的that从句后，and后都是完整的句子。（见9）
4、也有代词就近指代227，因为没有主从句存在（只有so that）.尽管前面有其他复数名词，但就近指代。又说是因为so that的缘故可以就近指代。the identities of all prosecution witnesses be made known to defendants so that they can attempt to rebut By a vote of 9 to 0, the Supreme Court awarded the Central Intelligence Agency broad discretionary(任意的，自由决定的) powers enabling it to withhold from the public the identities of its sources of intelligence information. 222也是没有主从句关系，所以就近指代。 5、 代词指代尤其是在主从句中，如果主句中用代词，那么语法上指代从句中的主语；如果从句中用代词那么指代主句中的主语。但是如果，这个代词附近也出现了单复数相同的名词，且与语法上指代对象不一致，那么就造成了指代不清晰。 6、 已经是代词得情况下，譬如one就不能再被当作名词来被指代。OG83 7、同一事物用同一指代名词，condition用one和it两个东西来指代不太好。 8、本来挺对称的之所以不对是因为省略不对。Any medical test will sometimes fail to detect the presence of a condition when it is there and indicate its presence when it is not.中when it is not (present).可是前面主句中根本没有present 只有presence，所以把indicate的宾语变成了从句，给后面提供一个可以省略的词 9、两个从句中的指代不能混淆。譬如a condition when it is present and indicate that there is one when it is not中，when it is not就只在and之后的句子里找指代，没有从前面找condition，找到的是one.但是根据ets的解释，好像one已经是代词，不能当作被指代对象。
二、 with用法 1、
独立主格结构： with+名词或者代词＋现在分词（过去分词，介词短语、动词不定式、形容词等）。当为现在分词或者过去分词时，可以省略with 如His right hand and arm crippled by a sniper’s bullet during the First War, Horace worked by holding the brush in his right hand. 2、
With/without的修饰问题 （1） 无歧义：With+n 作定语，表示一种性质、特征、技能的就近修饰：可能修饰的是主语也可能是其他名词，但都是紧跟，或者前面没有其他成分干扰产生误解。至于与被修饰部分间加不加逗号，都是可以的。 例1：The school board ruling mandating that physically handicapped be placed in regular classroom settings whenever possible also assured children with reading problems of special aid.
with reading problems 不会造成修饰歧义 例2：179. During the early years of European settlement on a continent that was viewed as "wilderness" by the newcomers, Native Americans, intimately knowing the ecology of the land. were a help in the rescuing of many Pilgrims and pioneers from hardship, or even death. A Native Americans, intimately knowing the ecology of the land, were a help in the rescuing of B Native Americans knew the ecology and the land intimately and this enabled them to help in the rescue of C Native Americans, with their intimate knowledge of the ecology of the land, helped to rescue D having intimate knowledge of the ecology of the land. Native Americans helped the rescue of E knowing intimately the ecology of the land, Native Americans helped to rescue 205. The peaks of a mountain range, acting like rocks in a streambed, produce ripples（波纹） in the air flowing over them; the resulting flow pattern, with crests and troughs that remain stationary although the air that forms them is moving rapidly, are known as "standing waves." (A) crests and troughs that remain stationary although the air that forms them is moving rapidly, are (B) crests and troughs that remain stationary although they are formed by rapidly moving air, are (C) crests and troughs that remain stationary although the air that forms them is moving rapidly, is (D) stationary crests and troughs although the air that forms them is moving rapidly, are (E) stationary crests and troughs although they are formed by rapidly moving air, is og114。From the bark of the paper birch tree the Menomini crafted a canoe about twenty feet long and two feet wide, with small ribs and rails of cedar, which could carry four persons or eight hundred pounds of baggage yet was so light that a person could easily portage it around impeding rapid （2） 有歧义：with +n+分词（还有with+n+to do表目的）即可作状语也可作定语，（可以理解为即可修饰最近的词，也可修饰主语）但一般放句末更容易理解为作状语：即可理解为作定语修饰紧前的名词，又可理解为作状语修饰整个句子。With前面有没有逗号都是可以的。 例1：OG212；with the aim of ..既可以做定语修饰policy，又可以做状语修饰主句的主谓结构 The Baldrick Manufacturing Company has for several years followed a policy with the aim to decrease operating costs and to improve the efficiency of its distribution system. 例2：Alaska regularly deposits some of its profits from the sale of oil into a special fund, with the intention to sustain the state’s economy after the exhaustion of its oil reserves.
(A) fund, with the intention to sustain the state’s economy after the exhaustion of its oil reserves
(B) fund, the intention of which is to sustain the state’s economy after they have exhausted their oil reserves
(C) fund intended to sustain the state’s economy after oil reserves are exhausted
(D) fund intended to sustain the state’s economy after exhausting its oil reserves
(E) fund that they intend to sustain the state’s economy after oil reserves are exhausted
例3：The principal has sought approval for her plan to grant promotions to only those seven-grade students proficient in reading without meeting with opposition.
这句话让我们无从判断without meeting with opposition是修饰students ，还是表示主语动作的一种方式，这种情况下就得改种写法了，纠正此歧义。 另外的例证：with＋n+分词，一般为状语，不可修饰名词。 例如og192. Cajuns speak a dialect brought to southern Louisiana by the four thousand Acadians who migrated there in 1755; their language is basically seventeenth-century French to which has been added English. Spanish. and Italian words. （C）to which English, Spanish, and Italian words have been added（正确答案）
（D）with English, Spanish, and Italian words having been added to it （with短语作副词时不可以修饰名词。此外，having done永远不可以做后置定语修饰名词！这条可以作为绝对错误原则，排除选项！） 总结：with/without置于句末容易产生歧义：修饰主语（或者说整个句子）或者修饰最近的词。有无逗号都可能。with/without的结构放在句尾，前面又有名词，就要小心。先试试修饰主语，是否可行，再试试修饰前面的名词，是否可行，如果两者皆可，那就是歧义了。 （3）例外：感觉有歧义但是是正确选项：
大概是因为尽管语法上修饰两个东西，但是从逻辑上理解不会犯这种错误。 OG113. 表伴随Visitors to the park have often looked up into the leafy canopy and seen monkeys sleeping on the branches, with arms and legs hanging like socks on a clothesline. 大全985
Those who have visited the Grand Canyon have typically seen layers of sediment in the gaping canyon, with different colors that mark the passage of time like the rings in a tree trunk. D (A) seen layers of sediment in the gaping canyon, with different colors that mark (B) see layers of sediment in the gaping canyon, whose different colors mark (C) been seeing layers of sediment in the gaping canyon, whose different colors are markers of (D) been able to see layers of sediment in the gaping canyon, with different colors marking（D） (E) seen layers of sediment in the gaping canyon, marking by different colors 3、with与逗号：with＋n作定语，前面可有逗号可无逗号，但可能无逗号表限定性修饰。 （1）OG114，OG179，OG205都是with＋n 作定语修饰紧前面的名词，有逗号相隔 （2）学生那题，OG141，OG152with＋n, 紧跟定语修饰，无逗号 三、and 1、 表并列时候两个并列也需要and OG225 where there is still a sizable population of wolves and where 2、 and前加不加逗号要看句子需要，有的and只是在从句中平行，如果加and就会造成与主句相应部分平行，所以不该加。即便是看起来是个run-on句子。 207. In the textbook publishing business, the second quarter is historically weak, because revenues are low and marketing expenses are high as companies prepare for the coming school year. 有的为了表示多次比较，各比较间隔开以免造成误解或者更加明析，就在and前加逗号。 729.The development of a new jumbo rocket that is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle and at a lower cost.
(A) The development of a new jumbo rocket that is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle and at a lower cost.
(B) The development of a new jumbo rocket is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration and be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit at a lower cost than the space shuttle.
(C) The new development of a jumbo rocket, which is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration, will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit at a lower cost than the space shuttle.
(D) A newly developed jumbo rocket, which is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration, will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle can, and at a lower cost. D
(E) A newly developed jumbo rocket, which is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration, will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle and to cost less. 这题在and前加了逗号，但又不是因为主谓结构run-on句子。原因是，偶觉得这是为了结构清楚，因为than引导了一个比较从句，用“，”使at a lower cost与than引导的从句断开，更清楚地表达与主句地并列关系 An inventory equal to 90 days sales is as much as even the strongest businesses carry, and then only as a way to anticipate higher prices or ensure against shortages.
四、 歧义 1、Sizable wolf population 中 sizable修饰有歧义，到底修饰wolf还是population不清楚形容词后面跟两个名词修饰有歧义 3、
介词歧义：（1）OG162。指出a of b＋介词短语
产生歧义。the parents of children under four years of age 中under four years of age修饰谁？A of B +prep修饰问题（2）og128 A and B+介词短语（of/by）, A of B and C; （3）A介词B 介词C a cost to business of 100 thousands 总结：第一种情况
两个名词公用一个of 第二种情况
两个名词与两个介词结构 4、 状语修饰歧义中的固定搭配的介词与后面的名词形成修饰歧义。OG150 5、 both…and中both位置不对会引起歧义。OG135 both ... authors ... and those ... 则可能: 1) [both ... authors ...] and those ... 2) [both ... authors ... and those ... ] 6、more adj n 。more efficient cars
五、 比较 1、比较对象为名词，为主语时要尽量补充助动词，否则造成歧义. 即比较句中存在介词的时候要小心比较对象错误，改正方法：主语比较不出助动词，介词后面的比较补出介词关于省略的问题：这里省略了american，是因为主句只有主语与谓语，如果主句是个完整的主谓宾，那么就不能省略主语，会混淆比较对象。Og187 总结：1、完整的主谓宾（主语与宾语） 2、主语与介词宾语同在 OG 224. Inuits of the Bering Sea were in isolation from contact with Europeans longer than Aleuts or Inuits of the North Pacific and northern Alaska. (A) in isolation from contact with Europeans longer than (B) isolated from contact with Europeans longer than 比较对象可能是from contact with Aleuts … (C) in isolation from contact with Europeans longer than were (D) isolated from contact with Europeans longer
than were (E) in isolation and without contacts with
Europeans longer than In the United States, trade unions encountered far more intense opposition against their struggle for social legitimacy than the organized labor movements of most other democratic nations. (A) against their struggle for social legitimacy than their struggle for social legitimacy 和 the organized labor movements of 比较。 (B) in their struggle for social legitimacy than did (C) against their struggle for social legitimacy as (D) in their struggle for social legitimacy as did (d)（B） (E) when they struggled for social legitimacy than has
2、两个比较对象，或者说一个时间比较两次，为清晰表示还是得用逗号隔开。 729.The development of a new jumbo rocket that is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle and at a lower cost.
(A) The development of a new jumbo rocket that is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle and at a lower cost.
(B) The development of a new jumbo rocket is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration and be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit at a lower cost than the space shuttle.
(C) The new development of a jumbo rocket, which is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration, will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit at a lower cost than the space shuttle.
(D) A newly developed jumbo rocket, which is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration, will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle can, and at a lower cost. D
(E) A newly developed jumbo rocket, which is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration, will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle and to cost less. 事实上这道题比较的是两个对象，一个是载重量，另一个是发射成本，应该分开来理解会比较清楚。将这个句子的省略补全后即为：A newly developed jumbo rocket, which is expected to carry the United States into its next phase of space exploration, will be able to deliver a heavier load of instruments into orbit than the space shuttle can, and will be able to deliver a load of instruments into orbit at a lower cost than the space can.翻译成中文为：新火箭一方面能比航天飞机装载更重的东西，另一方面能比航天飞机节省成本。两个并列谓语，前一个不难理解，后一个事实上的潜台词是：装载发射相同重量的东西，新火箭比航天飞机要节省成本。
3、尽量在通过句子比较，而非介词结构比较。介词结构容易产生歧义。OG200 6、 比较对象（指代）问题（此时比较对象多为比较复杂的带修饰语的名词词组），这种错误往往用2中方法来改正：用that/those指代前面的中心词a quake或者用199中的办法--用同样的中心词（a quake）+限定修饰语来表达；直接用it/they指代是很典型的错误。例子OG199 OG187 7、 特速比较句：dirt roads cost twice as much to maintain as paved roads do 8、 比较对象单复数应该一致。 9、 | 
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发表于 2006-7-9 22:34:00
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