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jcz2008

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jcz2008

11 Archaeology
Archaeology is a source of history, not just a bumble auxiliary
discipline. Archaeological data are historical documents in their own
right, not mere illustrations to written texts, Just as much as any
other historian, an archaeologist studies and tries to reconstitute the
process that has created the human world in which we live - and us
ourselves in so far as we are each creatures of our age and social
environment. Archaeological data are all changes in the material world
resulting from human action or, more succinctly, the fossilized results
of human behavior. The sum total of these constitutes what may be called
the archaeological record. This record exhibits certain peculiarities
and deficiencies the consequences of which produce a rather superficial
contrast between archaeological history and the more familiar kind based
upon written records.
Not all human behavior fossilizes. The words I utter and you hear as
vibrations in the air are certainly human changes in the material world
and may be of great historical significance. Yet they leave no sort of
trace in the archaeological records unless they are captured by a
dictaphone or written down by a clerk. The movement of troops on the
battlefield may "change the course of history," but this is equally
ephemeral from the archaeologist's standpoint. What is perhaps worse,
most organic materials are perishable. Everything made of wood, hide,
wool, linen, grass, hair, and similar materials will decay and vanish in
dust in a few years or centuries, save under very exceptional
conditions. In a relatively brief period the archaeological record is
reduce to mere scraps of stone, bone, glass, metal, and earthenware.
Still modern archaeology, by applying appropriate techniques and
comparative methods, aided by a few lucky finds from peat-bogs, deserts,
and frozen soils, is able to fill up a good deal of the gap.

jcz2008

From Boston to Los Angeles, from New York City to Chicago to Dallas,
museums are either planning, building, or wrapping up wholesale
expansion programs. These programs already have radically altered
facades and floor plans or are expected to do so in the not-too-distant
future.
In New York City alone, six major institutions have spread up and out
into the air space and neighborhoods around them or are preparing to do
so.
The reasons for this confluence of activity are complex, but one factor
is a consideration everywhere - space. With collections expanding, with
the needs and functions of museums changing, empty space has become a
very precious commodity.
Probably nowhere in the country is this more true than at the
Philadelphia Museum of Art, which has needed additional space for
decades and which received its last significant facelift ten years ago.
Because of the space crunch, the Art Museum has become increasingly
cautious in considering acquisitions and donations of art, in some cases
passing up opportunities to strengthen its collections.
Deaccessing - or selling off - works of art has taken on new importance
because of the museum's space problems. And increasingly, curators have
been forced to juggle gallery space, rotating one masterpiece into
public view while another is sent to storage.
Despite the clear need for additional gallery and storage space,
however," the museum has no plan, no plan to break out of its envelope
in the next fifteen years," according to Philadelphia Museum of Art's
president.

jcz2008

13 Skyscrapers and Environment
In the late 1960's, many people in North America turned their attention
to environmental problems, and new steel-and-glass skyscrapers were
widely criticized. Ecologists pointed out that a cluster of tall
buildings in a city often overburdens public transportation and parking
lot capacities.
Skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power.
In one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of skyscraper
office space in New York City raised the peak daily demand for
electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply the entire city of
Albany, New York, for a day.
Glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful. The heat loss (or
gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten times that
through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board. To lessen
the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders of
skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and
reflective glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce
glare as well as heat gain. However, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise the
temperature of the surrounding air and affect neighboring buildings.
Skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city's sanitation facilities, too.
If fully occupied, the two World Trade Center towers in New York City
would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each year-as
much as a city the size of Stanford, Connecticut , which has a
population of more than 109, 000.

jcz2008

13 Skyscrapers and Environment
In the late 1960's, many people in North America turned their attention
to environmental problems, and new steel-and-glass skyscrapers were
widely criticized. Ecologists pointed out that a cluster of tall
buildings in a city often overburdens public transportation and parking
lot capacities.
Skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power.
In one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of skyscraper
office space in New York City raised the peak daily demand for
electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply the entire city of
Albany, New York, for a day.
Glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful. The heat loss (or
gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten times that
through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board. To lessen
the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders of
skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and
reflective glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce
glare as well as heat gain. However, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise the
temperature of the surrounding air and affect neighboring buildings.
Skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city's sanitation facilities, too.
If fully occupied, the two World Trade Center towers in New York City
would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each year-as
much as a city the size of Stanford, Connecticut , which has a
population of more than 109, 000.

jcz2008

The deposits at Holzmaden, Germany, present an interesting case for
analysis. The ichthyosaur remains are found in black, bituminous marine
shales deposited about 190 million years ago. Over the years, thousands
of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have been
recovered from these rocks. The quality of preservation is outstanding,
but what is even more impressive is the number of ichthyosaur fossils
containing preserved embryos. Ichthyosaurs with embryos have been
reported from 6 different levels of the shale in a small area around
Holzmaden, suggesting that a specific site was used by large numbers of
ichthyosaurs repeatedly over time. The embryos are quite advanced in
their physical development; their paddles, for example, are already well
formed. One specimen is even preserved in the birth canal. In addition,
the shale contains the remains of many newborns that are between 20 and
30 inches long.
Why are there so many pregnant females and young at Holzmaden when they
are so rare elsewhere? The quality of preservation is almost unmatched
and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with an awareness
of the value of the fossils. But these factors do not account for the
interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of
pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of
giving birth.

jcz2008

For the last 82years, Sweden's Nobel Academy has decided who will
receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, thereby determining who will be
elevated from the great and the near great to the immortal. But today
the Academy is coming under heavy criticism both from the without and
from within. Critics contend that the selection of the winners often has
less to do with true writing ability than with the peculiar internal
politics of the Academy and of Sweden itself. According to Ingmar
Bjorksten , the cultural editor for one of the country's two major
newspapers, the prize continues to represent "what people call a very
Swedish exercise: reflecting Swedish tastes."
The Academy has defended itself against such charges of provincialism in
its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the great
literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the Academy
from outside influences. This may well be true, but critics respond that
this very distance may also be responsible for the Academy's inability
to perceive accurately authentic trends in the literary world.
Regardless of concerns over the selection process, however, it seems
that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the
literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that
writers seek. If for no other reason, the prize will continue to be
desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it; not only is the
cash prize itself considerable, but it also dramatically increases sales
of an author's books.

jcz2008

16. the war between Britain and France
In the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost every corner of
Europe, as well as in the Middle East, south Africa ,the West Indies,
and Latin America. In reality, however, there was only one major war
during this time, the war between Britain and France. All other battles
were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at least
partially related to its antagonist’ goals and strategies. France
sought total domination of Europe . this goal was obstructed by British
independence and Britain’s efforts throughout the continent to thwart
Napoleon; through treaties. Britain built coalitions (not dissimilar in
concept to today’s NATO) guaranteeing British participation in all
major European conflicts. These two antagonists were poorly matched,
insofar as they had very unequal strengths; France was predominant on
land, Britain at sea. The French knew that, short of defeating the
British navy, their only hope of victory was to close all the ports of
Europe to British ships. Accordingly, France set out to overcome Britain
by extending its military domination from Moscow t Lisbon, from Jutland
to Calabria. All of this entailed tremendous risk, because France did
not have the military resources to control this much territory and still
protect itself and maintain order at home.

jcz2008

French strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships would provide the
force necessary to defeat the British navy. Such a force would give
France a three-to-two advantage over Britain. This advantage was deemed
necessary because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology
because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology, and also
because Britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing it to win
with fewer forces. Napoleon never lost substantial impediment to his
control of Europe. As his force neared that goal, Napoleon grew
increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate attack.