Listen to a conversation on a caumpus between two students.
Man: Hi. Are you Paula?
Woman: Jim?
Man: Hi. Nice to meet you.
Woman: Glad to meet you.
Man: So, you need some tutoring in English?
Woman: Yeah. I'm taking English composition, and I'm not doing very well on my essays.
Man: Right. Um, well,
first let's see if we can figure out a time to meet . . . that we're both free.
Woman: Okay.
Man: How about Mondays?
Maybe in the morning?
I don't have any classes until eleven on Mondays.
Woman: That would work, but I was hoping we could, you know, meet more than once a week.
Man: Oh. Well, Tuesdays are out.
I've got classes and, uh, I work at the library part time on Tuesdays and Thursdays.
But I could get together on Wednesdays.
Woman: In the morning?
Man: Probably nine-thirty would be best.
That way we'd have an hour to work before I'd have to get ready for my eleven o'clock.
Woman: So that would be two hours a week then?
Man: I could do that.
Woman: Oh, but, would that be extra?
You know, would I need to pay you for the extra session?
Man: No. Um, just so you meet me here at the Learning Center, and we both sign in, then I'll get paid.
Tutoring is free, to you, I mean. The school pays me.
But we both have to show up. If you don't show up and sign in for a session, then I don't get paid.
So . . .Woman: Oh, don't worry about that.
I really need the help.
I won't miss any sessions unless I'm sick or something.
Man: Okay then. So you want me to help you with your essays?
Woman: Right. I could bring you some that have, you know, comments on them.
I'm getting C's and . . .
Man: Well, that's not too bad.
Once I see some of your writing, we should be able to pull that up to a B.
Woman: You think so?Man: Sure.
But I need to explain something.
Some of my students in the past . . . they expected me to write their essays for them.
But that's not what a tutor is supposed to do.
My job is to help you be a better writer.
Woman: Oh, I understand that.
But you'll read my essays, right?
Man: Oh yeah. No problem.
We'll read them together, and I'll make suggestions.
Woman: Great. I think part of the problem is I just don't understand the teacher's comments.
Maybe you can help me figure them out.
Man: Sure. Who's the teacher?
Woman: Simpson.Man: No problem.
I've tutored a couple of her students, so I know more or less where she's coming from.
Okay, then. I guess we'll meet here on Monday.
Woman: I'll be here. Nine-thirty you said.
Man: Just sign in when you get here.
Listen to part of lecture in a geology class.
Okay, today we're going to discuss the four major types of drainage patterns.
I trust you've already read the chapter so you'll recall that a drainage pattern is the arrangement of channels that carry water in an area.
And these patterns can be very distinctive since they're determined by the climate, the topography, and the composition of the rock that underlies the formations.
So, consequently, we can see that a drainage pattern is really a good visual summary of the characteristics of a particular region, both geologically and climactically.
In other words, when we look at drainage patterns, we can draw conclusions about the structural formation and relief of the land as well as the climate.
Now all drainage systems are composed of an interconnected network of streams,
and, when we view them together, they form distinctive patterns.
Although there are at least seven identifiable kinds of drainage patterns, for our purposes, we're going to limit our study to the four major types.
Probably the most familiar pattern is the dendritic drainage pattern.
This is a stream that looks like the branches of a tree.
Here's an example of a dendritic pattern.
As you can see, it's similar to many systems in nature.
In addition to the structure of a tree, it also resembles the human circulation system.
This is a very efficient drainage system because the overall length of any one branch is fairly short,
and there are many branches, so that allows the water to flow quickly and efficiently from the source or sources.
Okay, let's look at the next example.
This drainage pattern is referred to as a radial pattern.
Notice how the streams flow from a central point.
This is usually a high mountain, or a volcano.
It kind of looks like the spokes that radiate out from the hub of a wheel.
When we see a radial pattern, we know that the area has experienced uplift and that the direction of the drainage is down the slopes of a relatively isolated central point.
Going back to the dendritic for a moment.
The pattern is determined by the direction of the slope of the land, but it, uh,
the streams flow in more or less the same direction, and . . .
so it's unlike the radial that had multiple directions of flow from the highest point.
Now this pattern is very different from either the dendritic or the radial.
This is called a rectangular pattern, and I think you can see why.
Just look at all of those right-angle turns.
The rectangle pattern is typical of a landscape that's been formed by fractured joints and faults.
And because this broken rock is eroded more easily than unbroken rock,
stream beds are carved along the jointed bedrock.
Finally we have the trellis pattern.
And here in this example, you can see quite clearly how the tributaries of an almost parallel structure drain into valleys and . . .
and form the appearance of a garden trellis.
This pattern forms in areas where there are alternating bands of variable resistance,
and by that I mean that the bands of rock that are very strong and resistant to erosion alternate with bands of rock that are weak and easily eroded.
This often happens when a horizontal plain folds and outcroppings appear.
So, as I said, as a whole, these patterns are dictated by the structure and relief of the land.
The kinds of rocks on which the streams are developed, the structural pattern of the folds, uh,
faults, and . . . uplift will usually determine a drainage system.
However, I should also mention that drainage patterns can occasionally appear to be, well, out of sync with the landscape.
And this can happen when a stream flows over older structures that have been uncovered by erosion or . . .
or when a stream keeps its original drainage system when rocks are uplifted.
So when that happens, the pattern appears to be contrary to the expected course of the stream.
But I'm interested in your understanding the basic drainage systems.
So I don't plan to trick you with test questions about exceptional patterns,
but I expect you to know that exceptions to the patterns can occur when geological events influence them.
Listen to part of lecture in a art class.The professor is discussing drawing.
Professor
rawing is a very basic art form.
It's appealing because it can be used to make a very quick record of the ideas that an artist may be envisioning,
so, a drawing can serve as a visual aid for the artist to remember a certain moment of inspiration and maybe use it for a more detailed work later on.
Okay, usually such sketches allow the artist to visualize the proportions and the shapes without much attention to details so these images can be used by painters, architects, sculptors-any artist really.
And large renderings, sketches of parts of the whole . . .
these can be helpful in the creative process when a . . .
a huge image might be more difficult to conceive of in its entirety.
Or, a sketch of just one face in a crowd can allow the artist to . . . focus on creating just that part of the image.
So, in many artists' studios, countless drawings are strewn about as the final painting or sculpture takes form.
And this gives us insight into the creative process,
as well the opportunity to see changes from the images at the beginning in the images of the finished work.
It's rare, in fact, for an artist to use permanent materials to begin a piece of art.
And some painters, for example, even sketch onto the surface of the canvas before applying the pigments.
Now, architects are especially prone to sketches because, of course,
their buildings are so large that an image in smaller scale is necessary to the imagination and implementation of such projects.
So, uh, these studies become the basis for future works.
And again, this is very interesting as a record of the creative process.
Okay so far?
Okay, drawing has several other functions besides as a temporary reference.
For centuries, artists have used drawing as a traditional method of education.
By copying the great works, especially of the Old Masters, aspiring artists could learn a lot about proportion,
how to capture light and shadow and . . .
and so forth. In fact, some artists who later achieve recognition,
still continue to use this practice to hone their skills or . . .
or simply to pay homage to another artist, as is often the case when a work of art originally created in another medium like a sculpture . . .
when it's recreated in the form of a drawing.
Many examples of drawings of Michelangelo's sculptures were re-created by well-known artists.
One that comes to mind is the Study of Michelangelo's Bound Slave by Edgar Degas.
The original by Michelangelo was a marble sculpture that was, oh, about seven feet in height,
but the small drawing was made in a sketchpad.
In any case, the study is also considered a masterpiece, on a small scale, of course.
So . . . what additional purposes might be served by the medium of drawing?
Well, let's remember that photography is a relatively new art form, so prior to the use of photographs to record historical events,
a quick drawing by an artist was about the only way to preserve a real-time visual account of an important moment.
Although a more permanent visual impression might be rendered later, it would be based on memory and not on the artist's actual observation.
Probably the most often cited example of a sketch that preserved an historical record would be the small drawing of Marie Antoinette as she was taken to the guillotine in a cart through the streets of Paris.
Jacques-Louis David sketched this famous drawing on a piece of paper about the size of the palm of his hand.
And the artist, the artist reporter, is still important even in modern times, when photography isn't possible,
for example, when judges won't permit cameras in the courtroom.
Okay, to review, we've talked about three functions for drawing-as a visual aid for the artist to complete a future work,
as a method of education for aspiring artists or even practiced artists,
and as a way to report an event.
But the sketchbook has . . . other possibilities.
Sometimes a drawing is the final execution of the art.
Picasso produced hundreds of drawings in, well, every conceivable medium, but especially in pencil and crayon.
I find it very interesting that Picasso did so much of this kind of work . . . drawing, I mean, in his last years.
Some critics have argued that he was just laughing at the art world, which was willing to pay outrageous sums for anything with his name on it,
and clearly, a drawing can be executed in a short period of time.
But others, other critics, they feel as I do that Picasso was drawing because it was so basic, and because it was so spontaneous and so much fun.
And also, think about how difficult it really is to produce a quick drawing with a few lines and,
uh, no opportunity to . . . to recreate the original, either by painting it out or remodeling the clay or changing the building materials, or . . .
or any of the other methods for revision of a finished artistic work that artists have at their disposal.
So, what I'm saying is that drawing when it's elevated to a finished piece, it must be done with confidence and it must show a high degree of creativity and mastery of the art form.
In a way, it harkens back to the beginnings of art itself, when some unknown artist must have stuck a finger in the earth to draw an image or . . .
maybe he picked up a stone and made a drawing on the wall of a cave.
Okay, so, as a first assignment, I want you to make a couple of sketches yourself.
I'm not going to grade them.
This isn't a studio art class.
I just want you to use a few basic strokes to capture an image.
You can do the first one in pencil, crayon, ink, chalk, or even charcoal . . . whatever you like.
Then, I want you to sketch the same image in a different medium.
So, if you do a face in pencil, I want you to do the same face but in chalk or crayon.
Bring them to class next week and we'll continue our discussion of drawing,
but we'll talk more about the materials artists use to produce drawings, and, uh, we'll refer to your sketches as examples.
Listen to a conversation on campus between a student and a professor.
Student: Thanks for seeing me, Professor Williams.
Professor: Glad to, Alice. What do you have on your mind?
Student: Well, I got a little mixed up when I started to go over my notes from the last class, so I had a few questions.
Professor: Shoot.Student: Okay. I understand the three basic sources of personnel for multinational companies.
That's fairly self-explanatory.
Professor: Host country, home country, and third country.
Student: Right. But then you started talking about staffing patterns that . . . let me see . . . okay . . .
you said, "staffing patterns may vary depending on the length of time that the multinational company has been operating,"
and you gave some examples, but I got confused and now I can't read my notes.
Professor: Okay. Well, one pattern is to rely on home country managers to staff the key positions when the company opens, but gradually moving more host country nationals into upper management as the company grows.
Student: So, for example, if a French company opened a factory in Canada, then French management would gradually replace themselves with Canadian managers.
Is that what you mean?
Professor: Right. I think I used that very example in class.
So do you want to try to explain the second pattern to me?
Student: Sure. I think it's the one where home country nationals are put in charge of the company if it's located in a developed country,
but in a developing country, then home country nationals manage the company sort of indefinitely.
Professor: Right again. And an example of that would be . . .
Student: . . . maybe using German management for a Swiss company in Germany, but, uh, they might send Swiss management to provide leadership for a Swiss company in . . . in . . .
Professor: How about Zimbabwe?
Student: This is one of the confusing parts.
Zimbabwe has a very old and highly developed culture, so…
Professor: . . . but it's still defined as a developing country because of the economic base-which is being developed now.
Student: Oh, okay. I guess that makes sense.
Then the example of the American company with British management . . .
when the company is in India . . . that would be a third-country pattern.
Professor: Yes. In fact, this pattern is fairly prevalent among multinational companies in the United States.
Many Scottish or English managers have been hired for top management positions at United States subsidiaries in the former British colonies-India, Jamaica, the West Indies, some parts of Africa . . .
Student: Okay. So I've got all the examples right now.
Professor: Anything else?
Student: Just one thing.
There were some typical patterns for certain countries.
Professor: Like the last example.
Student: No. This came later in the lecture.
Something about Japan and Europe.
Professor: Oh. Right. I probably said that both Japanese multinational companies and European companies tend to assign senior-level home country managers to overseas locations for their entire careers,
whereas multinational companies in the United States view overseas assignments as temporary,
so they may actually find themselves reporting to a senior-level manager from the host country who has more experience.
Student: So, for example, a Japanese company in the United States would most probably have senior-level Japanese managers with mid-level managers maybe from the United States.
But in Japan, the senior-level Japanese managers at an American company would probably have mid-level American managers reporting to them?
Professor: Well, generalities are always a little tricky, but for the most part, that would be a typical scenario.
Because living as a permanent expatriate is a career move in Japan, but a temporary strategy in the United States.
Student: Okay.
That's interesting.
Professor: And important for you to know as a business major with an interest in international business.
You're still on that track, aren't you?
Student: I sure am. But, you know, I wasn't thinking in terms of living abroad for my entire career.
That really is a huge commitment, and something to ask about going in.
Anyway, like you say, most American companies view overseas assignments as temporary.
That's more what I have in mind, for myself, I mean.
Listen to part of discussion in a astronomy class.
The professor is talking about solor system.
Professor:Okay, let's get started.
Um, as you know today I promised to take you on a walk through the solar system,
so let's start here with the central object of our solar system-the Sun.
As you can see, the Sun is about five inches in diameter and that's about the size of a large grapefruit,
which is exactly what I've used to represent it here in our model.
So, I'm going to take two steps and that will bring me to the planet closest to the Sun.
That would be Mercury.
Two more steps to Venus.
And one step from Venus to Earth.
Let's continue walking three steps from Earth to Mars.
And that's as far as I can go here in the classroom, but we can visualize the rest of the journey.
Don't bother writing this down. Just stay with me on this.
So, to go from Mars to Jupiter, we'd have to walk a little over half the length of a football field,
so that would put us about at the library here on campus, and then to get from Jupiter to Saturn,
we'd have to walk another 75 yards, so by then we'd be at Harmon Hall.
From Saturn to Uranus, we'd have to walk again as far as we'd gone in our journey from the Sun to Saturn,
and so we'd probably be at the Student Union.
From Uranus to Neptune we'd have to walk the same distance again, which would take us all the way to the graduate dormitory towers.
From Neptune to Pluto, another 125 yards.
So, we'd end up about one third of a mile from this classroom at the entrance to the campus.
Okay. That's interesting, but now I want you to think about the orbits of the planets in those locations.
Clearly, the first four planets could orbit fairly comfortably in this room,
but to include the others, we'd have to occupy an area of more than six-tenths of a mile, which is all the way from College Avenue to Campus Drive.
Remember that for this scale, the Sun is five inches,
and most of the planets are smaller than the lead on a sharpened pencil.
Okay, with that in mind, I want you to think about space.
Sure, there are some moons around a few planets, and a scattering of asteroids and comets, but really, there isn't a lot out there in such a vast area.
It's, well, it's pretty empty.
And that's what I really want to demonstrate with this exercise.
Now, it would really be even more impressive if you could actually make that walk, and actually you can,
if you visit Washington, D.C., where a scale model is set up on the National Mall, starting at the National Air and Space Museum and ending up at the Arts and Industries Museum.
I did that a couple of years ago, and it was, well amazing.
Even though I knew the distances intellectually, there's nothing like the experience.
Has anybody else done that walk?
Student 1:I have. And you're right.
It's an eye-opener.
It took me about twenty minutes to go from the Sun to Pluto because I stopped to read the information at each planet,
but when I made the return trip, it was about ten minutes.
Professor: Did you take pictures?
Student 1: I didn't. But, you know, I don't think it would have captured it anyway.
Professor:I think you're right.
What impressed me about doing it was to see what was not there.
I mean, how much space was between the bodies in the solar system.
And a photograph wouldn't have shown that.
So back to our model.
Here's another thought for you.
The scale for our model is 1 to 10 billion.
Now, let's suppose that we want to go to the nearest star system, the neighbor to our solar system.
That would be the Alpha Centauri system, which is a little less than four and a half light years away.
Okay. Let's walk it on our model.
Here we are on the East Coast of the United States.
So if we want to make it all the way to Alpha Centauri, we have to hike all the way to the West Coast, roughly a distance of 2,700 miles.
And that's just the closest one.To make a model of the Milky Way Galaxy would require a completely different scale because . . .
because the surface of the Earth wouldn't be large enough to accommodate a model at the scale of 1 to 10 billion.
Now, let's stop here for a minute because I just want to be sure that we're all together on the terms solar system and galaxy.
Remember that our solar system is a single star, the Sun, with various bodies orbiting around it-nine planets and their moons, and asteroids, comets, meteors.
But the galaxy has a lot of star systems-probably 100 billion of them.
Okay? This is important because you can be off by almost 100 billion if you get confused by these terms.
Not a good idea.
Okay, then, even if we could figure out a different scale that would let us make a model of the Milky Way Galaxy, even then, it would be challenging to make 100 billion stars,
which is what you'd have to do to complete the model.
How many would that be exactly?
Well, just try to count all the grains of sand on all the beaches on Earth.
That would be about 100 billion.
But of course, you couldn't even count them in your lifetime, could you?
If you'd started counting in 1000 B.C.E. you'd be finishing just about now, with the counting, I mean.
But of course, that assumes that you wouldn't sleep or take any breaks.
So, what am I hoping for from this lecture?
What do you think I want you to remember?
Student 2: Well, for one thing, the enormous distances . . .
Student 3: . . . and the vast emptiness in space.
Professor:That's good. I hope that you'll also begin to appreciate the fact that the Earth isn't the center of the universe.
Our planet, although it's very beautiful and unique, it's still just one planet, orbiting around just one star in just one galaxy.
Listen to part of discussion in a psycology class.
The professor is discussing defense mechanisms.
Professor:Okay, we know from our earlier study of Freud that defense mechanisms protect us from bringing painful thoughts or feelings to the surface of our consciousness.
We do this because our minds simply can't tolerate these thoughts.
So, defense mechanisms help us to express these painful thoughts or feelings in another way, while we repress the real problem.
The function of defense mechanisms is to keep from being overwhelmed.
Of course, the avoidance of problems can result in additional emotional issues.
And there's a huge distinction between repression and suppression.
Anybody want to explain the difference?
Student 1:I'll try it.
I think repression is an unconscious response to serious events or images but suppression is more conscious and deals with something unpleasant but not usually, well, terrible experiences.
Professor:I couldn't have said it better.
Now remember that the thoughts or feelings that we're trying to repress may include, just to mention a few, anger, depression, competition, uh . . . fear, envy, hate, and so on.
For instance, let's suppose that you're very angry with your professor.
Not me, of course. I'm referring to another professor.
So, you're very angry because he's treated you unfairly in some way that . . . that could cause you to lose your scholarship.
Maybe he failed you on an examination that didn't really cover the material that he'd gone over in class,
and an F grade in the course is going to be unacceptable to your sponsors.
So, this would be very painful, as I'm sure you'd agree.
And I'd say it would qualify as a serious event.
So let's take a look at several different types of defense mechanisms that you might employ to repress the feelings of disappointment, rage perhaps, and . . . and even violence that you'd feel toward the professor.
Most of them are named so the mechanism is fairly obvious and one of the most common mechanisms is denial, which is . . .
Student 2: If I want to deny something, I'll just say I'm not angry with the professor.
Professor:Exactly. You may even extend the denial to include the sponsors,
and you could tell your friends that they'd never revoke your scholarship.
And this mechanism would allow you to deny the problem, even in the face of direct evidence to the contrary.
Let's say, a letter from the sponsor indicating that you won't receive a scholarship for the next term. . . .
Okay on that one?
Okay. How about rationalization?
Student 2: Well, in rationalization, you come up with some reasons why the professor might have given an unfair test.
Professor: And how would you do that?
Student 2: Well, you might defend him.
You could say that he gave the test to encourage students to learn information on their own.
Is that what you mean?
Professor: Sure. Because you'd be rationalizing . . .
providing a reason that justifies an otherwise mentally intolerable situation.
Okay, another example of rationalizing is to excuse the sponsor for refusing to hear your side of the situation.
You might say that sponsors are too busy to investigate why students are having problems in their classes.
And you might do that while you deny your true feelings that sponsors really should be more open to hearing you out.
Student 3: So when you deny something, I mean when you use denial, you're refusing to acknowledge a situation,
but . . . when you use rationalization, you're excusing the behavior?
Professor:Excellent summary.
So, now let me give you another option.
If you use a reaction formation as a defense mechanism, you'll proclaim the opposite of your feelings.
In this case, what would you say about the professor?
Student 4: I'd say that I like the professor when, in fact, I hate him for destroy . . . depriving me of my opportunity.
Professor:And you might insist that you have no hard feelings and even go so far as to tell your friends that he's an excellent teacher.
You see, a reaction formation turns the expression of your feelings into the opposite reaction, that is, on the surface.
And that brings us to projection, which is a defense mechanism that tricks your mind into believing that someone else is guilty of the negative thought or feeling that you have.
Student 1: Can you give us an example of that one?
Professor:Okay. Feelings of hate for the professor might be expressed by telling classmates about another student who hates the professor,
or, uh, . . . or even suggesting that the professor has strong feelings of hate for you but you really like the professor yourself.
So you would project, um, . . . attribute your feelings . . . to someone else.
Get it?
Student 1: So if I hate someone, I'd believe that another person hates him or that he hates me.
Professor: But you wouldn't admit that you hate him yourself.
Student: Okay. That's projection.
Professor:Now displacement serves as a defense mechanism when a less threatening person or object is substituted for the person or object that's really the cause of your anxiety.
So, instead of confronting the professor about the unfair test,
well, you might direct your anger toward the friend who studied for the test with you,
and you could blame him for wasting your time on the material that was in the book and notes.
Of course, there are several other defense mechanisms like fantasy, which includes daydreaming or watching television maybe to escape the problems at school.
Or regression, which includes immature behaviors that are no longer appropriate, like, uh, maybe expressing temper in the same way that a preschooler might respond to having a toy snatched away.
And your textbook contains a few more that we haven't touched on in class.
Just one more thing, it's good to understand that the notion of unconscious thoughts and the mechanisms that allow us to manage them,
that this is a concept that goes in and out of fashion.
Many psychologists rejected defense mechanisms altogether during the 70s and 80s, and then in the 90s, cognitive psychologists showed a renewed interest in research in this area.
But I must warn you, that although they found similar responses, they tended to give them different names.
For instance, denial might appear in a more recent study as positive illusion, or scapegoating might be referred to instead of displacement.
But when you get right down to it, the same categories of behavior for defense mechanisms still exist in the research even if they're labeled differently.
And, uh, in my view, if you compare Freud's traditional defense mechanisms with those that are being presented by more modern researchers, you'll find that Freud is easier to understand and gives us a broader perspective.
And, if you understand Freud's categories, well, you'll certainly be able to get a handle on the newer terms.
What is exciting about the modern studies is the focus on coping skills and what's being referred to as healthy defenses.
So next time, we'll take a look at some of these processes.
Listen to part of conversation in a bookstore.
Student: Excuse me.
I'm looking for someone who can help me with the textbook reservation program.
Manager: Oh, well, I can do that.
What do you need?
Student: Okay. Um, my friend told me that I could get used books if I order, I mean, preorder them now.
Manager: That's right. Do you want to do that?
Student: I think so, but I'm not sure how it works.
Manager: Actually, it's fairly straightforward.
We have a short form for you to fill out.
Do you know what you're going to take next semester?
Student: Yeah, I do.
Manager: And you have the course names and the schedule numbers for all your classes?
Student: Unhuh.
Manager: Okay, then, just put that information down on the form and, uh, make a checkmark in the box if you want recommended books as well as required books.
And you said you were interested in used books, right?
Student: Right.
Manager: So mark the box for used books, sign the form and bring it back to me.
Student: Do I have to pay now?
Or, do you want a deposit?
Manager: No, you can pay when you pick up the books.
Student: And when can I do that?
Manager: The week before classes begin.
Student: That's good, but, um, what if I change my schedule?
I mean, I don't plan to but . . .
Manager: . . . it happens.
Don't worry. If you change classes, you can just bring the books back any time two weeks from the first day of class to get a full refund.
Of course, you'll need the original cash register receipt and a photo ID and,
if it's a new book, you can't have any marks in it.
But you said you wanted used books, so it won't matter.
Student: Yeah, that's the main reason why I want to do this-
because I'll have a better chance to get used books.
Manager: If there are used books available and you marked the form, that's what we'll pull for you.
Student: Okay, thanks a lot.
I'll just fill this out and bring it back to you later today.
I don't have all the numbers with me, the section numbers for the classes.
Manager: Fine. We need those numbers because when different professors are teaching the same class, they don't always order the same books.
Student: Right. So, will you be here this afternoon?
Manager: I probably will, but if I'm not, just give the form to the person in this office.
Don't give it to one of the student employees, though.
They're usually very good about getting the forms back to the office, but sometimes it gets really busy and . . . you know how it is.
Student: Sure. Well, I'll bring it back to the office myself.
Manager: That's probably a good idea.
And, oh, uh, one more thing. I should tell you that the used books tend to go first, so, if you want to be sure that you get used books . . .
Student: You know what?
I'm going to go right back to the dorm to get those numbers now, while you're still here.
Manager: Okay. That's good.
Listen to part of lecture in a environment science class.
Hydrogen is the most recent and, I'd say, one of the most promising, in a long list of alternatives to petroleum.
Some of the possibilities include batteries, methanol, natural gas, and, well, you name it.
But hydrogen fuel cells have a couple of advantages over some of the other options.
First of all, they're really quiet, and they don't pollute the atmosphere.
Besides that, hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, and it can be produced from a number of sources, including ammonia, or . . . or even water.
Okay. Now fuel cells represent a radical departure from the conventional internal combustion engine and even a fairly fundamental change from electric battery power.
Like batteries, fuel cells run on electric motors;
however, batteries use electricity from an external source and store it for use in the battery while the fuel cells create their own electricity through a chemical process that uses hydrogen and oxygen from the air.
Are you with me?
Look, by producing energy in a chemical reaction rather than through combustion, a fuel cell can convert, say 40-60 percent of the energy from the hydrogen into electricity.
And when this ratio is compared with that of a combustion engine that runs at about half the efficiency of a fuel cell, well, it's obvious that fuel cell technology has the potential to revolutionize the energy industry.
So, fuel cells have the potential to generate power for almost any kind of machinery or equipment that fossil fuels run,
but, the most important, um, let's say goal, the goal of fuel cell technology is the introduction of fuel cell powered vehicles.
Internationally, the competition is fierce to commercialize fuel cell cars.
I guess all of the leading automobile manufacturers worldwide have concept cars that use fuel cells, and some of them can reach speeds of as high as 90 miles per hour.
Even more impressive is the per tank storage capacity.
Can you believe this?
Some of those cars can run for 220 miles between refills.
But many of those cars were designed decades ago, so . . . what's the holdup?
Well, the problem in introducing fuel cell technology is really twofold.
In the first place, industries will have to invest millions, maybe even billions of dollars to refine the technology-
and here's the real cost-the infrastructure to, uh, support the fueling of the cars.
And by infrastructure, I mean basic facilities and services like hydrogen stations to refuel cars and mechanics who know how to repair them.
I think you get the picture.
And then, consumers will have to accept and use the new products powered by fuel cells.
So, we're going to need educational programs to inform the public about the safety and . . .
and convenience of fuel cells, if we're going to achieve a successful transition to fuel cell products.
But, unfortunately, major funding efforts get interrupted.
Here's what I mean.
When oil prices are high, then there seems to be more funding and greater interest in basic research and development,
and more public awareness of fuel cells, and then the price of oil goes down a little and the funding dries up and people just go back to using their fossil fueled products.
And this has been going on for more than thirty years.
STEP is a demonstration project sponsored by the government of Western Australia.
Now, in this project, gasoline driven buses have been replaced with fuel cell buses on regular transportation routes.
I think that British Petroleum is the supplier of the hydrogen fuel, which is produced at an oil refinery in Kwinana, south of Perth.
So we need to watch this carefully.
Another collaborative research effort is being undertaken by the European Union and the United States.
Scientists and engineers are trying to develop a fuel cell that's effectively engineered and attractive to the commercial market.
Now, under an agreement signed in about 2000, if memory serves, it was 2003, but anyway, the joint projects include the writing of codes and standards, the design of fueling infrastructures, the refinement of fuel cell models, and the demonstration of fuel cell vehicles.
In Europe, the private sector will combine efforts with government agencies in the public sector to, uh,
to create a long-term plan for the introduction of fuel cells throughout the E.U.
And the World Bank is providing funding to promote the development and manufacture of fuel cell buses for public transportation in China, Egypt, Mexico, and India,
and we're starting to see some really interesting projects in these areas.
So, uh, clearly, fuel cell technology is an international effort.Okay, at the present time, Japan leads the way in addressing the issues of modifying the infrastructure.
Several fueling stations that dispense hydrogen by the cubic meter are already in place, with plans for more.
But even when a nationwide system is completed, decisions about how and where to produce the hydrogen and how to transport it will still have to be figured out.
Most countries share the view that fleets of vehicles have significant advantages for the introduction of fuel cell powered transportation because,
well obviously they can be fueled at a limited number of central locations. And, uh, and other benefits of a fleet are the opportunity to provide training for a maintenance crew and for the drivers.
As for consumer education, no one country seems to have made the advances there that . . .
that would serve as a model for the rest of us.
But perhaps when the demonstration projects have concluded and a few model cars are available to the public, well, more attention will be directed to public information programs.
Listen to part of discusstion in a philosophy class.
Professor:Humanism is a philosophical position that places the dignity of the individual at the center of its movement.
A primary principle of humanism - I don't need to spell that for you, do I?
Okay, a primary principle of humanism is that human beings are rational and have an innate predisposition for good.
Although humanism is associated with the beginning of the Reformation, the humanist philosophy was not new when it became popular in Italy during the Middle Ages.
In fact, according to the ancient Greek philosopher, Protagoras, mankind was "the measure of all things."
And this idea was echoed by Sophocles when he said, "Many are the wonders of the world, and none so wonderful as mankind."
This is classical humanism.
Man as the ideal at the center of all creation.
Even the ancient Greek gods were viewed as resembling man both physically and psychologically.
And, in a sense, isn't this personification of the deity just another way to exalt human beings?
But that aside, it was precisely the rediscovery and translation of classical manuscripts that coincided with the invention of printing presses around the mid-15th century, which, uh, . . .
which provided a catalyst for the humanistic movement throughout Europe.
As the clergy and upper classes participated in the rediscovery and dissemination of classical literature, humanism became popular among theologians and scholars, and soon set the stage for the Renaissance.
This one, I'll spell.
Does anybody remember the meaning of the word renaissance?
Student 1: Rebirth, renewal.
Professor:Right you are.
Renaissance literally means "rebirth," and it refers to the return to ancient Greek and Roman art and literature,
which, like all things in the humanistic tradition, they were measured by human standards.
Art returned to the classical principles of harmony and balance.
In the field of architecture, we see both religious and secular buildings styled after ancient Roman designs, with mathematical proportions and . . .
a human scale, a scale that contrasted with the Medieval Gothic buildings of the previous era.
Public works such as bridges and aqueducts from the Roman occupation were repaired, restored, or rebuilt.
In the sculptures of the period, nude figures were modeled in life-sized images,
with true proportions, and it was also at this point that realism became the standard for painting,
with a preference for naturalistic settings and the placement of figures in . . . realistic proportion to those settings.
It was also evident that the portraits tended to be more personal and authentic.
And artists even produced self-portraits at this time.
Remember, the figures in the paintings of the previous era tended to be of another world, but Renaissance painters placed recognizable human beings in this world.
In music, there was an effort to create harmonies that were pleasing to the human ear and melodies that were compatible with the human voice.
In addition, music lessons became more widespread as a source of education and enjoyment.
Dancing increased in popularity with a concurrent trend toward music that had rhythm and invited movement as a pleasurable activity.
Student 2: Wasn't that why Latin became so important?
Professor:Yes. Both Greek and Latin became important as tools for scholarship, and classical Latin became the basis for an international language of the intellectuals throughout Europe.
To be true to humanism, and all it represented, it was necessary to be knowledgeable about, and, uh, . . . and faithful to the ancient philosophies as expressed in their writing, and how best to express them than in the original languages?
By the way, Latin as a universal language for clerics and the aristocracy, this encouraged the exchange of ideas on a wider scale than ever before, and legitimized in a sense the presumption that mankind was at the center of all things.
It also made it possible for individual scholars to make a name for themselves and establish their place in the history of mankind.
Well, it was at this time that a close association, almost a partnership was forged between art and science.
In their efforts to be precise, sculptors and painters studied the human form.
In effect, they became anatomists.
You may recall the drawing in your textbook, the one by Leonardo da Vinci which demonstrates the geometrical proportions of the human body.
And, of course, Alberti, in his many books on architecture, sculpture, and painting . . . he emphasized the study of mathematics as the underlying principle of all the arts.
Whereas artists had considered themselves craftsmen in the Middle Ages, the great Renaissance artists viewed themselves as intellectuals, philosophers, if you will, of humanism.
They were designing a world for human beings to live in and enjoy.
One that was in proportion and in harmony with mankind.
So, perhaps you can see why the so-called Renaissance man emerged.
Student 1: Okay. But exactly what is the definition of a Renaissance man?
I know it means a very talented person, but . . .
Professor:Good question.
Sometimes we use these terms without really defining them.
So I would say that a Renaissance man would be talented, as you said, but would also have to demonstrate broad interests . . .
in both the arts and the sciences.
The quality that was most admired in the Renaissance was the extraordinary, maybe even . . . universality of talents . . . in diverse fields of endeavor.
After all, this quality proved that mankind was capable of reason and creation, that humanism was justified in placing man in the center of the world, as the measure of all things in it.
With the humanistic philosophy as a justification, scholars would interpret the ancient classics and some of them would argue to a reasonable conclusion a very new and more secular society built on individual, human effort.
It was not difficult for the Renaissance man to make the leap of logic from classical humanism to political humanism, which encouraged freedom of thought, and indeed even democracy, within both the church and the state.
But that is a topic for another day.
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发表于 2008-1-29 19:18:00
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