Whenever a major political scandal erupts before an election and voters blame the scandal on all parties about equally, virtually all incumbents, from whatever party, seeking reelection are returned to office. However, when voters blame such a scandal on only one party, incumbents from that party are likely to be defeated by challengers from other parties. The proportion of incumbents who seek reelection is high and remarkably constant from election to election.
If the voters' reactions are guided by a principle, which one of the following principles would best account for the contrast in reactions described above?
when voters blame a scandal equally on all parties, almost all incumbents win reelection. but when a scandal is blamed on a single party, incumbents from that party tend to lose. E's principle: if party X is responsible for a scandal, voters should try to punish party X by voting out its incumbents, however, if all the parties are responsible, there's not much voters can do-whoever they vote for would be a member of one of the offending parties, so they might as well cote for the incumbents. So E accounts for the contrast in voter reactions.