重读曼哈顿语法 笔记更新

Manhattan 语法

Chapter2 基本概念

1.      clause 有主语+谓语 有independent clause 和 dependent clause。

a)      如果independent clause +dependent clause就是复合句，

b)     只有dependent clause的话这个叫fragment： Although she didn't havemuch work experience 。

c)      总结： 一个句子一定要有independent clause

2.      modifier 用于给出句子的其他信息

e.g. the happy child; The large dog, whichhas black fur, is a Labrador.

a)      which has a black fur 是nonessential modifier 去掉对句子的本意没有影响

e.g. The large dog is a Labrador.

b)     The job that she started last week is much harder than her previousjob. 这里that she started last week 是 essentialmodifier 去掉了你就不知道它在指什么工作The job is much harderthan her previous job.

a)      Coordinating Conjunctions   并列连接词 例如 and 能把俩independent clauses连起来常见的就是FANBOYS：for and nor but or yet so

b)     Subordinating Conjunctions 从属连接词  用来连接Modifiers和independent clauses 有 because, while, though, unless, before, after, if  

e.g. Although she didn't have much workexperience, she was offered the job.

aggravate (worsen) vs. aggravating (irritating)
known as (named) vs. known to be (acknowledged as)
loss of (no Longer in possession of) vs. loss in (decline invalue)
mandate (command) vs. have a mandate (have authority from voters)

native of (person from) vs. native to (species thatoriginated in)
range o f (variety of) vs. ranging (varying)
rate of(speed or frequency of) vs. rates for (prices for)
rise (general increase) vs. raise (a bet or a salary increase inAmerican Eng- Lish)
try to do (seek to accomplish) vs. try doing (experiment with)

may must will should 的表达的意思不同

e.g. 1
Absolutely Necessary: The court ruled that the plaintiff MUST pay full damages.

Morally Obliged: The court ruled that theplaintiff SHOULD pay full damages.

e.g. 2

Actual: If Chris and Jad met, they DISCUSSEDmathematics.

Hypothetical: If Chris and Jad met, they WOULDDISCUSS mathematics.

7.      是否能无ambiguity

e.g. The council grantedthe right to make legal petitions TO CITY OFFICIALS.

8.      only almost all 等表程度的词不要放错地方

9.      比较的对象要一致

e.g. Unlike Alaska,where the winter is quite cold, the temperature in Florida rarely goesbelow freezing.

10.  避免重复

e.g 1 The value of thestock ROSE by a 10% INCREASE.  

E.g. 2 The three pricesSUM to a TOTAL of $11.56.

e.g. 3Although shestudied night and day for three months, yet she did not do well on herexam.

Chapter3句子结构

1.      主语和谓语都要有。

a)      正确的句子都至少有一个independent clause 没有谓语就是fragment 是错误的。

e.g.1 The cat sitting by the stairs.sitting是present participle 不是working verb

e.g.2 BECAUSE the dog was never mine  

e.g.3 WHICH will be approved tomorrow.

a)      of new medicines是prepositional phrase

e.g. 1The discovery of new medicines(was/were) vital to the company's growth.

b)     compound subject，永远是复数形式。

e.g. 2Lin and Guy drive to work. Lin and Guy

c)      as well as 是一个modifier

e.g. 3 Lin, as well as Guy, drive to work everyday.，所以这里的主语只是Lin。

d)     句子里面也可以有compound verb。如果一个compound subject或者compound verb中间的俩部分离得太远，可能会出问题。

a)      主语和谓语之间的一些部分可以叫middlemen，忽略他们。

b)     warmup就是主语前面的一些东西，也忽略他们。

e.g. 1 prepositional phrases：Near Galway,the houses on the road to Spiddle is/are gorgeous. 这里的Near Galway是warmup， onthe road to Spiddle是middleman，prepositional phrase

e.g.2 dependent clauses 句子由who，because等开头的 Because she studied hard, she earned a good score on the test.

e.g. 3 other modifiers

e.g. In the waning days of the emperor's Life,the conquest of new lands on the borders of the empire was/wereconsidered vital. 第一个就是prepositional phrase +warmup，第二个就是prepositional phrase + middle man

e.g. Despite some initial concerns, the teacher is confident that her students mastered the lesson. （老师不只是对学生们有信心，还对他们掌握这门课有信心）

a)      如果that在一个working verb后面，就是一个reset button，一个新的主谓宾结构会出现。

b)     没有了that会出现一些歧义

e.g. I know Meryl Streep is an actor. 认识这个人，还是知道她是演员？

a)      俩independent clauses需要连接起来，这样就能建立一个compound sentence。例如之前说的FANBOYS：for and nor but or yet so 。

b)     如果没有了这些连词，那么俩independent clauses只能是a run-on sentence/a common splice.

c)      分号；也能用来连接俩independent clauses。

e.g. Earl walked to school; he later ate hislunch.

l  分号经常和transition一起用例如however，therefore， in addition。由于这些不是真正的连词，不能像连词一样用，

e.g. Andrew and Lisa are inseparable, THEREFORE,we never see them apart. 是错误的。要改成Andrew and Lisa areinseparable; THEREFORE, we never see them apart.

l  分号的另外一个用法就是分开本身那些自己就有commas的东西

e.g. I listen to Earth, Wind & Fire,Wow, Owls,and Blood, Sweat & Tears. 应该要变成I listen to Earth,Wind & Fire; Wow, Owls;and Blood,Sweat & Tears.

其实dependent clauses就是modifiers。

Modifier就是用来给出一些其他的信息，解释：who what when where why

他们都是 one-word modifier，形容词只能修饰名词和代词，副词只能修饰除了名词和代词的东西。

a)      Noun Modifiers，如形容词，只能修饰名词或者代词；

b)     Adverbial Modifiers，如副词，就只能修饰动词，形容词，prepositional phrases，或者整个句子，却不能修饰一个名词。

E.g. Max's grandmother is his supposedIrish ancestor. 和 Max's grandmother is his supposedlyIrish ancestor.

2.      名词Modifier

a)      形容词就是最简单的noun modifier了。其他类型的noun modifier其实就是长的形容词。

e.g. Sue placed the CAT on the couch. 回答了猫在哪里；

e.g. The CAT owned by Sue is playful. 回答的是谁的猫咪；

e.g. The CAT sleeping on the rug belongs toSue. 回答了是哪一只猫。

他们分别是preposition介词，过去分词past participle，和没有逗号的现在分词present participle withoutcommas。

b)     逗号+which，就是一个nonessential modifier，拿掉它，句子的本意是不会变的。

a)      Noun modifier的位置简直就是噩梦！最好是把noun和它的modifier放的尽可能近一点！！！

e.g. A hard worker and loyal team player,the new project was managed by Sue. 注意，A hard worker and loyalteam player是一个opening modifier，究竟谁是A hard worker and loyal team player？正确的是：A hard worker and loyalteam player, Sue managed the new project.

b)     特殊的情况 也可能发生这个情况

The box of nails, which is nearly full,  whichis nearly full. 无论是 which is nearly full还是 which is nearly full都不能离box近一点，那么至少有一个离得近就好。Essential modifier比nonessential来的好，of nails就是essential的，因为去掉了就不知道是哪个box了。

c)      possessive noun不是noun，是形容词。

e.g. Happy about his raise, Bill's celebrationincluded taking his friends out to dinner. 要改成Happy about his raise,Bill celebrated by taking his friends to dinner.

4.       名词Modifier Markers

e.g. relative pronoun 关系代词有以下的一些，which that who whose whom where when ，除了that以外的都只做noun modifier。that可以做noun modifier，如果它跟在noun后面，如果跟在verb后面呢就是reset button，主谓宾+that+主谓宾结构。

a)      who和whom一定modify people，which不能。

b)     whose可以modify人或者物。

c)      which和whom有时会跟着preposition介词。

d)     where只能modify一个noun place：area city country Nevada，不能modify metaphorical place：condition situation case circumstance arrangement，这些只能用 in which或者preposition + which。when可以用来modify时间，period，age 1987，decade，in which也可以。

5.       Noun Modifier Makers：prepositions和participles 他们俩，介词和分词，都能作为noun modifiers或者副词modifiers，但是要遵循一些规则。

a)      Prepositions

e.g. The executive DIRECTOR of the companyresigned three days ago. 这里是介词做noun modifier。

e.g. Researchers discovered that the mostcommon risk factor resulting in cholera epidemics is the lack ofa clean water supply. common修饰risk factor这个noun 形容词，resulting in cholera epidemics修饰risk factor这个noun 分词，of a clean water supply修饰lack 这个noun 介宾短语。去掉黑体其实就是，Researchers discovered that the risk factor is thelack。太神奇了辣！！！！

可以是present或者past的，这些participles们可以作为动词，名词（动名词）或者不同类型的modifiers。

e.g. She is playing soccer. 动词形式

e.g. Playing soccer is fun. noun 主语名词

e.g. The girl playing soccer is my sister. noun modifier

e.g. She stayed all day, playing socceruntil she was the only one left on the field. adverbial modifier。

l  所有-ving的作为动词形式都要有个be带着，不然就不是一个动词形式了。

l  如果ving形式不是动词，又没有被comma隔开，那么他就是一个noun，如Playingsoccer is fun，或者modify 另一个noun，如The girl playing soccer is my sister。

l  最后，如果是逗号+ing 那么就是一个adverbialmodifiers。

l  对于past participles过去分词，或者-ed的词，和ving是一样的规则，只是它做动词的时候直接用ed就行不用be动词带着

e.g. She played the lottery yesterday.，动词

e.g. She accidentally bought an expiredlottery ticket 这里是noun modifier。

e.g. Exhausted from her job, she boughta lottery ticket 这里是adverbial modifier。

l  过去分词不能做noun。

e.g. played football is fun。不对。

adverbial modifier。修饰动词和副词，他们也能修饰形容词，介宾prepositional phrases和clauses，但唯独不能修饰一个名词。他们放置的地方很灵活，只要能指代某一个verb或者clause，那就是合理的。Comma-ing形式的modifier，指向它们attach的整个clause。

他们也能回答how when where 和 why的问题，但是这些回答不是针对一个名词的。

e.g. The engineer rapidly IDENTIFIED theproblem. 这里是副词做副词修饰与，修饰动词，怎么样识别这个问题？

e.g. The TEAM ATTENDS staff meetings on Monday.这里是prepositional phrase做adverbial modifier修饰动词，他们什么时候参加这个会议？

e.g. The ENGINEER FIXED THE PROBLEM, earninghimself a promotion. 这里是present participle withcommas做adverbial modifier修饰前面的clause，这个人处理好了这个问题之后，发生了什么？

e.g. Exhilarated by the successful productlaunch, the TEAM CELE BRATED after work. 这里是past participle withcommas做adverbial modifier修饰后面的一句话，为什么这个team庆祝？

总结：adverbial modifiers指向正确的verb或者clause，结构上不要离其他的verb或者clause太近。

a)      Check the sequence in participle modifiers 检查分词修饰语的次序

e.g. The engineer fixed the problem, earninghimself a promotion. 这里是先解决问题，再取得promotion。前因后果

e.g. Exhilarated by the successful productlaunch, the TEAM CELE BRATED after work. 这里是因为开心，所以庆祝。前因后果

l  记住：前面的开头，无论是modifier还是main clause都是instigation action，后面的就是结果。

e.g. Slipping on the ice, she broke her ankle. 溜冰，后受伤，modifier – main clause

e.g. Breaking her ankle, she slipped on the ice. 受伤—> 溜冰 这是真牛

e.g. She slipped on the ice, breaking her ankle. 溜冰，后受伤，Main clause 到modifier

b)     subordinators 从属的

e.g. Although the economy is strong, the RETAILINDUSTRY IS STRUGGLING. 前面的一部分叫subordinate clause，很像一个完整的句子，但是前面有一个subordinator although，所以就不是完整的句子了。

l  Marker有if, before, unless, because ,that ,so that ,yet, after, while ,since,when. 如果句子有这些出现，要想一想是不是真的有转折或者比较。

l  Subordinators跟FANBOYS连词相似：都需要看看是不是有转折，但是他们不是interchangeable的。

此外要注意一些句子

e.g. Citizens of many countries are expressingconcern about the environmental damage caused by the widespread release ofgreenhouse gases may be impossible to reverse. 这里前面划线的就是一个main clause，但是后面的may be impossible toreverse，没有主语，也可以说这里有两个谓语。所以我们可以用that 隔开。变成Citizens of many countries are expressing concern THAT the environmental damage caused by the widespreadrelease of greenhouse gases may be impossible to reverse.这里 that前面就是一个主谓宾结构后面+that引导了另一个主谓宾结构。另外一种方法是Citizens of many countriesare expressing concern about the environmental damage caused by the widespreadrelease of greenhouse gases, DAMAGE THAT may be impossible to reverse.逗号前面是main clause，后面就是给前面的damage补充了信息。其实这里我还不是很懂，还要慢慢学习

c)      Which和present participle –ing 现在分词ing形式

e.g. Crime has recently decreased in ourneighborhood, WHICH has led to a rise in property values. 这里说的是crime的减少增加了房子的价钱。Which用来代替一个noun，但这里的neighborhood，和crime都不是which想代替的东西，实际上which想代替decrease或者整个句子，是不行的。可以改成Crime has recently decreased in our neighborhood, leadingto a rise in property values.

两个长的nonessential modifiers会造成奇奇怪怪的句子，

e.g. George Carlin, both shocking andentertaining audiences across the nation, who also struggled publicly withdrug abuse, influenced and in- spired a generation of comedians.

最好用夹心。one nonessential modifieris placed before the noun and the other is placed after.

e.g. Both shocking and entertaining audiencesacross the nation, George Carlin, who also struggled publicly with drugabuse, influenced and inspired a generation of comedians.

这里都是说，George Carlin influencedand inspired.

有时，这些题目会把某一个modifier放到core里面，那他就是不是一个modifier了。

e.g. Both shocking and entertaining audiencesacross the nation, George Carlin influenced and inspired ageneration of comedians yet struggled publicly with drug abuse. 这里的core是George Carlin influenced and inspired yetstruggled. 这里用了and和yet，做的连词，所以他们不是modifier。

Rule1: 分清楚可数和不可数。

可数用many，few，fewer，fewest，number of，numerous；不可数用much，little，less，least，amount of，great。More，most，enough，all可数和不可数都能用。用在单位nouns的时候例如dollars和gallons，还是用less。除非是，fewer than 20 dollar bills.

Rule2: 俩东西和仨或者更多

俩东西用比较级，better，worse，more，less 俩用between and

仨东西或者更多的话用最高级：best，worst，most，least，仨用among

Rule3: 数字这个单词

如果是numbers做比较的话，用greater than不用more than

Rule4: increase/decrease和greater/less

Increase/decrease只是说明某一个东西随时间的改变，greater/less主要是俩东西比较