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1, there must be clear sign that sth happened before sth else when past perfect is employed. but basically, the authors can use present perfect whenever they want. GMAT test takers still need to look for some hints here.
2, 'those' can not replace 'civilizations' as it is not mentioned earlier. only 'civilization' appears. this is testing point. an example would be 'their wines are priced to sell, and they do' -- that's why 'had ' is wrong
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