13鸟叫考古~已确认！

ayy90

感谢zhangtao1125童鞋确认！
2.1.1.    鸟类声音系统的进化**
V1 daisy88117
P1 说bird的声音系统的进化 大致介绍了下
P2 说某人做了个假设 具体忘了 有两个可能的结果 第一个BALABALA 但是某人发现这里有问题（有考点） 第二个可能的结果BALABALA （大致是有关声音系统是独立在各个不同鸟类脑部发育还是来源于同一个祖先等等）
P3 其他实验证明了应该是在各个human和bird group里独立发育的
1 darkchoco 710 好几道题考察“不同种类的鸟的声音系统是分开进化的，而不是来源于同一个祖先。”以及“无论对于鸟还是对于人，大脑有同一个区域专门负责声音的控制之类的”
2 Ckybe 700有个问题是问J（科学家人名）会同意以下哪个论述

V2 terryblue 720
阅读有个讲八哥的，说三种鸟学习发音，八哥如果主人变了，它会纠正之前"wrong"的发音，如果被isolate，它的发音就会odd
紧接说三种鸟应该是independently evolve，起源于共同的一个系统。
最后结论是所有发音生物应该都起源于同一个系统

V3 wade777 (Ckybe 700 推荐的版本)
第一段，讲Songbird与其他两种鸟是后天学习唱歌的， 不同与其他的动物是遗传的，讲若将这些鸟放入其他种的窝里，就会学他们的歌声，若将幼鸟隔离起来就会唱的及其诡异，大概是曾哥的绵羊音吧(亮点)。
第二段，说研究发现这些鸟的大脑中同时存在一套6个什么系统来控制学习发声， 一种假设是他们来源于一同一个祖先，但立即被否。另一种假设说他们是独立发展的这种系统， 就像鸟与蝙蝠明明相距甚远，却发展出如此相近的翅膀。
第三段，说进一步研究发现当人说话时会触发一些与鸟类似的声控系统，而那些语言功能有障碍的人往往无法启动这些系统， 于是科学家又她妈总结了说动物们的确是独立发展的声控系统，但是所有Vertebrate动物可能继承同一祖先的什么大脑功能系统之类的

V4 bear_viola
很长一屏多。开始说鸟是跟周围亲戚朋友学的，但是第二段J通过一个实验推出观点说有几种鸟声音很像，但是他们距离很远不可能是互相有影响推翻了第一段的结论，提出两个解释说一个是他们祖先是一样的，第二个不记得。第三段说是因为这些动物的大脑很类似，发声这个是被大脑控制的，举例说人类大脑损坏之后发声就会很奇怪。然后J也同意了这个大脑导致的观点，最后说这个能推到所有vertebrates身上

V5 rdfyj 720
第一段看得不认真，记得不多，大概和狗狗里差不多吧，
第二段，一上来就说一个科学家做了个实验，得到了一个惊人的结果，这些鸟发那些声的时候脑子里有7个部分很活跃，然后有两个可能的解释，第一个是说，这几个鸟有一个相同的会发声的祖先，立马被科学家给否了，说如果这样的话，那肯定就存在一个大灭绝之类的，（这里有考点，问的是科学家对什么观点有所怀疑之类的）第二个是说他们自己琢磨出怎么发声的，就好比鸟和蝙蝠都是自己琢磨出怎么飞的，到最后居然都长着个翅膀了（冥冥之中自有天意啊——LZ）注意，这里仍然是考点，问的是这个例子拿来干啥子，具体选项忘记了，但是看了结构应该就不难吧
第三段，为了证明第二个解释的正确性，又做实验发现，人发声相应的部分也很活跃啊，然后不会发声人的那些部分压根没反应，看来脊椎动物虽然都自己琢磨怎么叫唤，但是最后居然都有这个相同的属性，由此可见，这个属性是学习行为的一个关键环节（这部分似乎和狗有出路，我是按照自己的理解和记忆说的，大家判断下哈）有一题的考点似乎就是在最后一句

后两段原文 gitarrelieber
第二段：A few years ago, Jarvis and his colleagues made the surprising discovery that when a songbird, parrot or hummingbird is producing its learned vocalization, a set of seven similar structures in the birds’ brains become active. The finding was unexpected because the three avian groups are only distantly related to one another. At the same time, they are closely related to other birds that are not vocal learners. Flycatchers, for example, belong to the same order as songbirds—Passeriformes—yet no flycatcher species tested so far displays the trait. One possible explanation, says Jarvis, is that the three groups of vocal learning birds had a common ancestor that possessed the skill. “But this means there would have been multiple losses of the ability over time, a sort of mass extinction of vocal learning,” he says. Another hypothesis is that vocal learners evolved similar brain structures independently over the last 65 million years, much the same way that birds and bats separately evolved wings that turned out to be so much alike.

第三段：Discoveries about the human brain support this latter hypothesis. Scientists conducting imaging studies have found that when people speak, parts of their brains’ cerebrums that are similar to those of vocalizing songbirds, parrots and hummingbirds become active. They’ve also found that the same neural pathways are damaged in people who have lost the ability to speak due to injury or stroke. Jarvis now believes that vocal learning most likely developed independently in humans and the three bird groups (as well as in other learners whose brains have not been studied)—yet it arose from a pre-existing brain system, probably shared by all vertebrates, that controls learning to move.

zhangtao1125

就是原文。刚考完

lynnzhou83

厉害啊！谢谢LZ!

tina035

请问这个有原题吗，我貌似也觉得在哪里见过

吉麦涔

厉害~

ayy90

回三楼，不知道哪里有原题，在找另一个考古的时候顺带发现的

cici云

谢谢楼主~

chlegend

裸谢楼主啊，感动地湿了！

yhsuo

我把整个网页都复制下来了，考到的童鞋可以帮忙筛选出文章吗？！多谢啊！！！



Singing in the Brain
In contrast to most animals, songbirds--like humans--learn the vocalizations they make; studying how they do it may shed light on how people learn to speak
04-01-2007 // Laura Tangley


LIKE AN APPLE BOUGH bursting with fragrant blossoms, a cardinal crooning loudly from the treetops is a sure sign of spring. But the bird also is displaying a highly unusual talent. Cardinals, along with other songbirds, are among the few kinds of animals that learn the vocalizations they make. Among the others, two groups are also birds—hummingbirds and parrots—and the rest are mammals: bats, cetaceans, elephants and humans. All other creatures, from dogs and tigers to swans, owls and pigeons, produce sounds that, according to current research, are programmed by the species’ genes. “Not even the chimpanzee, our closest living relative, is a vocal learner,” says Erich Jarvis, a Duke University Medical Center neurobiologist who studies the trait.

According to Jarvis and other scientists, baby songbirds learn to sing much like human infants learn to speak. Both begin by listening to their parents or other adults and memorizing the sounds. The next step is to mimic the mentors, slowly perfecting their “language” over time through practice. “I love hearing the similarities between a babbling baby bird and a babbling baby human,” says biologist Donald Kroodsma, a retired professor at the University of Massachusetts and author of the book The Singing Life of Birds. “Each takes bits and pieces of the sounds adults produce, repeating them in completely random sequences until the proper vocalization takes shape.”

Like a French child raised by English-speaking parents, a young songbird raised by a different species of adult, or with recordings of a different species, will end up learning the “wrong” song—and will produce only an odd, improvised tune if it is raised in isolation. A vocal nonlearner such as a phoebe or a dove, on the other hand, will sing its species’ correct song even if it’s brought up by another kind of bird, or by none at all.







For songbirds, the final stage of learning often takes place once a fledgling leaves its parents’ territory. After settling in a new location, the bird may incorporate into its own repertoire local variations on the species’ song. “Just like people, songbirds have dialects,” says Kroodsma, who has studied bird songs for more than three decades. He has discovered that black-capped chickadees on Martha’s Vineyard, for example, have different dialects than chickadees in the rest of Massachusetts. The same is true of white-crowned sparrows in California, which produce markedly different songs from sparrows just a few miles up or down the coast. Like most people, who after adolescence have difficulty learning foreign languages, most songbirds lose the ability to learn new melodies after they reach maturity. A handful of species, however—including mynas, mockingbirds and starlings—are able to pick up new tunes throughout their lives.

Bird Brains
A few years ago, Jarvis and his colleagues made the surprising discovery that when a songbird, parrot or hummingbird is producing its learned vocalization, a set of seven similar structures in the birds’ brains become active. The finding was unexpected because the three avian groups are only distantly related to one another. At the same time, they are closely related to other birds that are not vocal learners. Flycatchers, for example, belong to the same order as songbirds—Passeriformes—yet no flycatcher species tested so far displays the trait.

One possible explanation, says Jarvis, is that the three groups of vocal learning birds had a common ancestor that possessed the skill. “But this means there would have been multiple losses of the ability over time, a sort of mass extinction of vocal learning,” he says. Another hypothesis is that vocal learners evolved similar brain structures independently over the last 65 million years, much the same way that birds and bats separately evolved wings that turned out to be so much alike.

Discoveries about the human brain support this latter hypothesis. Scientists conducting imaging studies have found that when people speak, parts of their brains’ cerebrums that are similar to those of vocalizing songbirds, parrots and hummingbirds become active. They’ve also found that the same neural pathways are damaged in people who have lost the ability to speak due to injury or stroke. Jarvis now believes that vocal learning most likely developed independently in humans and the three bird groups (as well as in other learners whose brains have not been studied)—yet it arose from a preexisting brain system, probably shared by all vertebrates, that controls learning to move.







However vocal learning evolved, Jarvis and other scientists say that a better understanding of how birds learn to sing should provide insight into human language acquisition, as well as potential new treatments for speech disorders. “The clinical implications are significant,” he says. “If we can learn how to repair damaged vocal-learning circuits in the songbird brain, there’s a good chance we can learn how to repair them in humans as well.”

Sexy Songs
Biologists have proposed at least two reasons why vocal learning—and the complex vocalizations it generates—would be favored during a species’ evolution. One advantage is that the trait provides flexibility to animals that must communicate across a variety of habitat types. While vocal-nonlearning doves don’t need to adjust their simple, low-frequency calls that travel so well along the ground—nor flycatchers their high-pitched songs that pass best through the air—most songbirds move in and out and throughout the layers of a forest, requiring a larger repertoire of sounds. Jarvis points out that Homo sapiens evolved in East Africa’s Rift Valley, a region where a variety of habitats also occur within short distances of one another.

But an even stronger selection pressure for vocal learning, say biologists, is mate attraction. Scientists studying several songbird species have demonstrated that females prefer males that produce the most complex songs—or, as Jarvis puts it, “The more variability in your vocalizations, the sexier you are.”

Other research, showing a link between a male bird’s song and his genetic fitness, suggests that the females know what they are doing. In a laboratory study of sedge warblers and zebra finches, for example, Cornell University psychologist and neurobiologist Timothy DeVoogd discovered that a male’s superior singing skills correlate with larger brain structures—and that among zebra finches, these bigger brains are inherited by the birds’ sons. “If you’re picking a male with a fancier song,” says DeVoogd, “you’re probably also picking one who’s a little bit smarter.”

In another study, Duke biologist Stephen Nowicki tested the response of female song sparrows to captive males whose abilities to accurately copy the songs of wild birds varied. As expected, he observed that females favored males that more accurately copied wild-type songs. But more significantly, Nowicki also discovered that birds with inferior songs had experienced stress early in life, which he suggests may have hampered brain development.



Given such clear advantages, why is it that so few animal species are vocal learners? To most biologists, the answer remains a fascinating mystery. Jarvis, however, has his own idea: “Species have a strong potential to develop vocal learning,” he says, “but something is also selecting against it, and I think that something is predators.” Like a peacock’s elaborate tail or a tanager’s dazzling colors, complex vocalizations may attract females, he suggests, but predators notice them, too.

Following that logic, a bright red cardinal singing boldly from a treetop may indeed make a worthy mate. After all, says Jarvis, “The better you sing your song, the more attention you’ll get. And if you can do that and also escape predation, you must be a pretty good animal.”

Laura Tangley is a National Wildlife senior editor.