关于恐龙灭绝的讨论

delan714

先给出一些相关单词，可以熟悉一下：
种属名词：
蜥臀目Lizard-hipped 鸟臀目Bird-hipped鸟盘目Ornithischia 肉食动物 Carnivore
食草动物 Herbivore 离椎亚目 Temnospondyl 兽脚亚目Theropod 兽孔目Therapsid
肉食性动物Predator
地质年代：
寒武纪 Cambrian 中生代 Mesozoic Era 白垩纪 Cretaceous-Period
侏罗纪时期 Jurassic- Period 三叠纪Triassic- Period 石炭纪Carboniferous
古生代 Paleozoic Era 奥陶纪 Ordovician 二叠纪 Permian
志留纪 Silurian 泥盆纪 Devonian
解剖名词：
软骨Cartilage 犬齿Canine teeth 背鳍Dorsal Fin 门牙Incisor teeth 臼齿Molar teeth

p1:

遥想白垩纪Cretaceous Period当年，以恐龙为代表的很多动物，还有爬行类啦一下子灭亡了，科学家一直对这些动物灭绝的那段时候很有兴趣（阴暗心理）。好在最近有一个发现，把大家的兴趣吸引了到恐龙刚刚出现（initial appearance）的那个年代

第一段，LATE XX 纪 晚期很多XX类（不认识，可能是两栖类amphibian）和爬行类动物reptile大量灭绝。最近科学们对这类灭绝的兴趣开始增长，而不仅仅是对后来恐龙的灭绝（出了一道题）。一种M恐龙的化石使得人们长期认为这种恐龙的出现和一些生物的灭绝是同期的。近期的研究让科学家的兴趣从研究恐龙的灭绝转向研究这种恐龙出现的年代的surrounding  events。

p.s.:关于M恐龙，我还特地查了一下：[M开头的恐龙有Muttaburrasaurus木他龙Maiasaura  慈母龙 Mamenchisaurus 馬門溪龍Mandschurosaurus 满州龙 Megalosaurus斑龙 Micropachycephalosaurus小肿头龙 Minmi敏迷龙  Monoclonius独角龙 Mosasaurus沧龙 Mussaurus鼠龙 ]

第一段讲以前考古学家对恐龙的灭绝有兴趣，但最近（好像是221 million years ago，有考点，但我忘了考什么了）兴趣逐渐转移到了恐龙出现的时候（有细节题）  （恐龙出现于200 millin years ago ~ 65000 thousand years ago ）


p2:

恐龙出现的时候，一些动物灭绝了（好像有人据此认为恐龙的横行导致他们的惨死），但是也有动物在此之后（之前或者，反正是反驳的证据了）灭亡（细节题，问下列正确的是：作者选有白垩纪的生物在恐龙出现之前消失）。关于恐龙灭绝的原因，有的人认为是气候干燥，而且的确在岩石中发现了干燥的证据。但是岩石和化石的更多证明，却体现了很多当时的物种在干旱气候发生之后很久才灭绝（另一个细节题），从而undermine了这个解释，
第二段，之后文章举了很多流派的解释，首先排除了恐龙的原因，因为恐龙出现之后很久某些动物才灭绝（觉得逻辑不是很通）。新研究发现，这种M恐龙的出现predate生物的灭绝。
有人说那些生物灭绝是因为天气，比如天气曾经很干燥。但是从岩石的证据表明时间也不对应，这些生物的灭绝在天气很干燥之前还是之后，并且有些生物生活在更干燥的环境下，并且好后来才灭绝。作者举了腭鱼的例子，如果是气候变化，那腭鱼就不会能存活了。
然后分析而是一次的发碰撞引起DUST杀死了陆地植物先

第二段恐龙出现的时候，一些爬行动物灭绝了，有科学家认为是恐龙的到了使它们灭绝的；但也有科学家认为恐龙到来了很久以后它们才灭绝，所以不是恐龙的到来造成它们的灭绝。于是，一种理论认为是气候变化导致的爬行动物灭绝，讲了很多，最后被作者找了个原因毙了。

p3:

另外一种说法是恐龙，以及那些杂七杂八的物种因大的陨石撞击而灭绝。而且在加拿大却被克发现的一个大坑就被认为是这个大撞击的地点。该坑的形成年代与恐龙灭绝的时间基本吻合（细节题）。然而，还有一些当地的哺乳动物灭绝时间与此 不吻合（类似的，反正是把第二种观点也反驳了一下）
第三段，有人说是慧星撞击魁北克省Quebec，还留了个坑呢！但是，当时只有几种动物灭绝（好像是甲壳动物crustacean和另一种什么动物，这里第一次提到脊椎动物vertebrate），大规模的脊椎动物灭绝不是这个时候。

第三段讲另一些科学家认为是陨石撞击地球事它们灭绝的；举了个例子，在加拿大魁北克发现的陨石坑形成的年代和爬行动物灭绝的时间吻合（细节题：问举这个例子in order to？我选的D，就是承认撞击的年代和爬行动物灭绝的年代吻合，E选项很迷惑，是说为了说明是陨石撞击造成爬行动物灭绝，我犹豫了一会儿，认为还是选D，毕竟作者观点是不同意陨石撞击说的）；接下来继续说这种理论，但也被作者找了个理由给毙了。


p4:

结论，看起来阿，没有一种解释是能独立地为恐龙灭门事件负责，科学家们现在更相信这样的观点，就是各种因素以某种顺序和各自的重要程度组合在一起，杀死了好多生物（另一个细节题，问大家对恐龙灭门原因的了解到什么程度，知道事件顺序等明显不对，作者选只知道他们一起作用的那个）。
末段，原因是多方面的，要综合考虑。最后一段说到一种鱼（好像是鱼，记不清了），这个鱼受什么影响减少，而它是恐龙的主要粮食。说是在灭绝以前，海洋就不断向周边的陆地侵蚀incursion，造成了许多植物的死亡，而这些是恐龙的主要食物。

第四段将作者态度，他认为不应该简单的接收某一种观点，而应该综合考虑这个complex的问题，考了作者态度题

文中就各种流派的介绍，用了some，predate在日期上早于，postdate把日期填迟，most等词，一定要看清楚，后来出了两道关于some，most，all，predate，postdate的题，那些时间的相互关系和动物灭绝是some还是most要留心。

题目总结:
1.有一题是同意替换：原文是M恐龙出现predate甲壳动物extinction，选项是甲壳动物extinction postdate M恐龙出现。
2.过去科学家研究兴趣集中在恐龙灭绝的时候，后来转移到了恐龙出现的时候了initial appearance
3.有题问新老观点的不同之处
4.nonfly dinosaur有考点, 问nonfly dinosaur到底怎么样了. 答: nonfly dinosaur在65亿年前就extinct了}在此有一道判断题，全部围绕着那种动物存在 before or after 650 million year，一定要仔细)
5.问远古化石和石头有什么用？ 我选帮助学者们理清古代事物发展的时间先后。
6.细节题：问举这个例子in order to？我选的D，就是承认撞击的年代和爬行动物灭绝的年代吻合，E选项很迷惑，是说为了说明是陨石撞击造成爬行动物灭绝，我犹豫了一会儿，认为还是选D，毕竟作者观点是不同意陨石撞击说的）；同意选D
7.考了作者态度题：在最后一段：没有一种解释是能独立地为恐龙灭门事件负责，科学家们现在更相信这样的观点，就是各种因素以某种顺序和各自的重要程度组合在一起，杀死了好多生物
8.恐龙出现的时候，一些动物灭绝了，但是也有动物在此之后（之前或者，反正是反驳的证据了）灭亡（细节题，问下列正确的是：作者选有白垩纪的生物在恐龙出现之前消失）

其他零散的版本：
V1:  
第一段 由于地球遭到撞击，造成了物种的灭绝。下面举了化石等几个方面的例子证明这种观点有道理。
第二段 但有些物种是逐渐灭绝的，所以不是撞击造成的，所以还有其它原因。      
第三段  火山爆发造成全球变暖，水里面的氧气少了，会产生一种细菌，这种细菌对很多生物有毒，可能造成它们的灭绝。

V2：
恐龍滅絕第一段說恐龍滅絕的原因, 應該是流星, 講到X-P(?)事件, 以及該時代的地層有一種特殊的物質,是只有在外星球發現的. 再者化石中發覺動物是大量且突然死亡的. 在大量滅絕後, 生物品種又大量的出現第二段, 好像是支持第一段, 但是說到了另外一個現象是, 大滅絕不只一次, 要多次的流星才可能發生. 因為某些滅絕是逐漸發生的, 好像有點否定流星說第三段, 說到了另一個原因是火山爆發, 使得水中的氧氣減低, 是何某種生物的生存, 該生物又會產生硫化物產生劇毒, 漸漸地, 生物就滅絕了  
考4題  
1.作者寫這文章的主要是想?  
2.作者舉出第1段的架構理由?  
3.第三段產生的硫化物導致什麼後果?  
4.忘了

V3：
还一个是将恐龙和其他物种灭绝的，这个记得比较清楚因为差点做错一道题，第一段讲恐龙灭绝跟一个T-EVENT还是E-EVENT（T还是E记不清楚了）有关，第二段许多科学家认为其他物种（注意这里就没说恐龙了）的灭绝和一个什么东西有关，下面转折说这种说法不对，第三段说更可信的关于其他物种灭绝的说法是什么。题目有一个说这篇文章的main idea是什么，我差点选错，应该选：除了恐龙的灭绝与T-EVENT有关以外，其他物种灭绝的原因，还有一题问关于除恐龙以外的物种灭绝的最可信的说法是什么，这个到第三段里定位。

V4：
忽然想起来一个是讲恐龙灭绝的，大概是第二段说由于温度变化但证据不全，第三段说是吃植物的恐龙，因为植物的灰尘在大气中阻止了光合作用所以恐龙灭绝

V5:
一篇是关于恐龙的jj题。 只记得其中有一题问的是陨石impact对terrestrial animal大还是freshwater animal大。
Key words: dinosaur photosynthesis meteorolite

V6:
讲了一个旧理论，地球上一段时间（侏罗纪），有过突发性的大量生物灭绝，比如恐龙。后来发现，不是突发性的，就算连恐龙，也是在相当长的一段时间里面，慢慢灭绝的。又举了非热带地区海底生物等例子，证明这个过程不是突发性的，是慢慢灭绝的。

V7:
最长的那篇大概起码是一点五倍屏幕...是说extinction的. 提出一个理论说星体撞地球，通过天气的变化使物种大量灭绝了.    然后有fossil evidence来反驳这个理论 说有一些对温度敏感的生活没有受到影响  最后又反过来说 其实 如果考虑什么什么的话还是能解释清楚的.    最后一两段不是那么能懂...题目想不起来了.

V8:
第二篇是地球上650 million年前一次生物大灭绝的情况，有一种理论认为是一个小行星撞地球引起的，但是有证据表示：其实除了恐龙以外，灭绝的物种很少。有一种叫什么什么的动物，它非常脆弱，却也顽强的活了下来。后来又发现证据：说是在灭绝以前，海洋就不断向周边的陆地侵蚀，造成了许多植物的死亡，而这些是恐龙的主要食物
JJ主人回复：跟第二篇有点像，说的是除像恐龙这种食草、陆地动物外，其他动物（如小型动物、水生动物）因为对陆生植物依赖较小，因而受影响较小。还有一题出在这里，比较哪种动物对陆生植物（还是什么来着）的依赖性。关于“海洋就不断向周边的陆地侵蚀，造成了许多植物的死亡，而这些是恐龙的主要食物”的理论，我没有印象了...

V9：
第一段说 传统观点认为地球历史上一次物种大灭绝P是由于火山喷发引起的，然后说这种观点认为火山喷发有什么什么后果，然后怎么影响了生物，造成了大灭绝。但是有反对观点说火山喷发即使有影响，后果没有这么强悍。
第二段说有人提出了是因为二氧化碳持续增加，海平面下降，导致了大量陆地露出海平面，然后大气中的二氧化碳和氧气还是什么来着，既不清了，比例严重失衡，导致海洋生物以及近海生物生存困难，然后就都灭绝了。
有个except题
选的答案应该是第二段那几个并列部分里面没有的
还有一题问下面几个选项发生的顺序，也是在第二段里面出的

V10:
生物灭绝的原因那篇
1)火山爆发对于生物灭绝到底是什么样的作用
我选的是,a factor but not the most important
2)哪个选项可以support文中一句话，那句话就是，即使火山爆发是个原因，也不足以那么强悍毁掉整个生物群。
我选的是在某个地方发生的火山爆发对某些生物并没有什么影响。
3）后面是细节题
大家要注意看第二段里二氧化碳导致的一系列的连锁变化，考了2题

V11:
做到火山的那篇了，但是应该不是GWD里的，因为不是完全说火山的，火山只是在第一段有说，全文是在讨论某某某为什么会灭绝的，最开始怀疑是火山的原因，最后得出的结论是火山只是其中一个因素。

V12:
记得考了一篇阅读：大家都相信， 火山爆发之后下面的液体什么的会immediate refill the chamber。但是第二段讲了对一种叫Zinch 还是什么的crystal的氧oxygen做了分析，得出来什么什么rock是固态的，反对了第一段的观点。这篇比较简单。

V13:
关于恐龙和物种灭绝的那个：
一段讲了恐龙灭绝的那次大灭绝是一次剧烈的灭绝过程，动物FOSSIL，碳同位素（其含量与生物生存所消耗和呼吸的碳相关）含量表明物种是在短时间内剧烈灭绝的。这支持了星体碰撞地球。
一些科学家认为这种剧烈物种灭绝可以解释历史上其他的大的物种灭绝，比如PERMIAN还有TRISSA~~什么灭绝。  （接下来反驳这种观点）但实际上证据表明这两次大灭绝是慢慢进行的，过程延续了几千年，有的物种灭了有的物种又恢复了。如果是彗星撞地球的话要造成这样的过程那需要长达千年的时间内一系列的形体碰撞，这是极端不可能的。而且也没有证据表明在PERMIAN和TRISSA~~时代有发生过这样的大碰撞。
另一种解释是VOLCANIC ERUPTION。火山爆发会释放出很多温室气体大大提高地球表温度，减少海洋水中能溶解的OXYGEN，导致很多生物灭亡。而且有种细菌会PRODUCE一种SULFER,是TOXIC的，把比较高等一点的动植物灭掉。
记得的问题有：
1，    （关于第一段），  哪个证据表明恐龙灭亡时期的物种是剧烈灭亡的？
2，    文章SUGGEST恐龙大灭亡和历史上其他的大灭亡有什么区别？
3，    文章SUGGEST了PERMIAN和TRISSA~~时代物种大灭亡哪里区别于和恐龙大灭亡时代？

V14:
第一段说恐龙是一个TX爆炸灭绝的，接着说了有一些evidence：比如植物的fossil里发现了很abrupt的变化，还有evidence是有灰尘笼罩了整个地球
第二段说有历史上有两个大灭绝，调查evidence是不连续的，而没有资料表明interrestial（太空吧）有如此不连续的爆炸，所以一定不是爆炸导致
第三段说在evidence里面发现了一种细菌，这种细菌在海水很低温的情况下存在（说了海水不能吸收CO2什么的）这里主要调查了isopete（有题），所以这种细菌是植物大量不连续灭绝的原因，但是这一段只是hypothese

V15:
第一段 由于地球遭到流星撞击，主要造成了dinosaur的灭绝 （这是开头的第一句话，有题目问这件话在第一段中的function。 我选present a hypothesis, the rest of the 1st para suppots it.）。 这个事件被称为T－x event。 下面举了几个方面的例子证明这种观点有道理。其中，对植物的影响造成了isotope of carbon 的比例的变化（有一个干扰项和这个有关）。同时发现了一种以－ium结尾的词命名的元素的大量出现。这种元素地球上很少，但是在天体上含量很高。 （有题目涉及这里。答案是 那些撞击地球的小行星含有大量的这种元素）。
第二段 但有些物种是逐渐灭绝的。 虽然一系列的行星撞击可以造成这个结果，但实际的这种可能信并不存在。所以还有其它原因。  （ 好像没有什么题目）。第三段  火山爆发造成的lava遍布地球。So全球变暖，导致了水的温度升高。随着温度升高，水里面的含氧量气降低。 一些厌氧细菌（anaerobic bacterial）会大量出现。他们产生的HS 气体对高等生物(complex organism)有毒。 而这种大量的火山爆发在各个年代都有，除了T－x event 发生的那段时期。（注意这句话，因为这个表明此文承认流星撞击的确造成了dinosaur的灭绝。 而HS气体仅仅造成了其它物种的长时间缓慢发生的extinction 。 有题目问到这个）

V16:
第一段说某人提出恐龙在某个时期的灭绝是因为气候发生了很大变化。第二第三段分别说有两个人反对他的观点，说还有其他因素，比如某种植物的灭绝以及陨石（原文是DUST）降落到地球等。其中举了一个小型动物依靠植物什么的例子（没看懂）最后一段讲BLABLABLA，最后说第一个人说的气候的变化这个因素还是不能忽视的。有一点类似，因为我没太看懂，而这篇也写得不太详细，记得好像第二段讲植物因素的时候写了water plant 和land plant这两个词，不好意思，能力不够，确实记不太清楚了。

V17:
Small animals和dinosaur的区别 有点犹豫， 一个更不依赖于植物（我选的）；一个是更对温度不敏感. 好像有关于小型动物和恐龙的比较，说食草不视草。说温度变化，返利是水里的动物好像没灭绝

V18:
恐龙灭绝的，不过不是65亿年前那个，而是说是有个彗星很早前撞击了地球，然后地球产生的巨大热量是陆地上的恐龙啊什么动物啊都死了，可是水里有一种很受高温影响的植物却没有死，因此说地球没有被撞过。下一段说陆地植物动物与水里植物东物的比较（有考点，推出水里植物怎样，答案应该是水里植物不比陆地植物受影响少一些).最后一段说是科学家们又推定可能是火山爆发导致的恐龙灭绝，然后又说也不一定就是彗星撞击，只是证据不够。（这里有考点）。

V19:
有个细节题是问陆生动物和水生动物的比较的吧（大概就是这么个比较的意思，好像在第2段）

V20:
恐龙灭绝的原因。大致是开始介绍学者认为灭绝师陨石撞地球导致。第二段说这个观点可以被驳斥。因为陨石撞地球带来气候变化，但对气候变化更敏感的什么动物的化石却可以被定位在白垩纪之后，所以“毁灭论”有问题。 之后有列出另一种论点是从进化还是什么角度推出恐龙灭绝是从一条食草的食物链开始的，还介绍了几种陆生，水生动物受影响的不同。最后作者又说毁灭轮也是有价值的，后面记不住了。相关生词大家可以参考下celestial， herbivore，Cretaceous Period，vertebrate，这些词都出现过

V21:
有一题问 small animals 和恐龙的比较，我选的是 less affected by temperature change.还有一题问作者同意catastrophists 的什么， 想不起来了，不好意思。

V22:
类似jj里面的恐龙灭绝，但是不是很一样啊，我遇到的那篇第一段结尾是说，虽然科学家认为大灭绝是陨石与地球碰撞，但是化石表明不是这样的，然后第二段开始说，化石显示怎样怎样的显示传统的观点是错误，然后又提出大型的动物比小型的动物存活的多，水生的比陆生的存活的多（这里有题目哈）。。。后来忘记了，第三段就说有volcanic eruption，然后说传统的观点中温度气候的那方面也是有道理的，最后一句说因为上面是有道理的，所以爬行类存活（好像是这样的，因为第三段就一个题目，没怎么仔细看）

V23:
问从第三段suggest什么的 就是jj里说 水生植物比动物受温度影响小那提 我觉得jj答案有问题 因为温度是之前一段得毁灭轮的论调 已经被否了 这段说是食物链出了问题 plant kingdom很受影响 答案应该和这个有关。

V24:
那篇考古不对。应该是两篇文章。第二段只谈了气候变化，还有陆地脊椎动物和水里动植物的比较。说是因为气候先影响陆地上 的植物（后面这里有道题问能推断小动物什么，我选的就是一些小动物不像恐龙对陆地上的植物依赖性那么强。）第三段也没有说什么细菌，而是说并不需要完全拒 绝“毁灭论”。还有道题问“毁灭论”忽视了什么好像。

V25:
好像在第二段或者第三段highligt出来，我找了前后并没有说温度，而是说推测恐龙灭绝可能由于食物链什么，所以选了和之前钩钩里不同的选 项：small animals不如恐龙depend on 植物。大家碰到回去定位下再看看。 还有一题忘了问啥了，就记得选水里的比XX更怎样，是和原文2或3段一个一摸一样的一个句子，读文章时注意下那句就行。其它选项都是什么大的比小的更怎样，水的比什么的更怎样什么的。

V26:
第一段，传统观点认为恐龙灭绝是陨石撞地球导致。但作者觉得不对。
第二段，如果陨石撞地球这个原因是对的话，那么那时将引起白垩纪温度的巨大变化。但是有fossil证明，有对温度很敏感的动物活到了白垩纪之后。第三段，新观点，是因为陆地上的植物都死了。因此以之为食的食草动物死了，影响了整条食物链。证据表明，small animals 和水里的动物群受的影响小。第四段，这个植物死亡可能是由dust引起。陨石撞击也有可能引起dust。所以陨石撞击也有可能是对的，虽然长时间有那么多陨石撞击的可能性有点小。问题比较简单。定位即可。我没有印象有遇到同意灾难论的什么这道题……不过作者对于灾难论的态度是有保留的，一开始说陨石撞击引起温度变化这种原因是不可能的。下一段提出植物死亡这种原因。
最后一段说，植物死亡也由dust引起，而dust也有可能是由陨石引起。所以还是有可能的。
问题1： Small animals和dinosaur的区别。我选的是更不依赖植物。因为温度变化已经被fossil证据证明不对，也就是说温度变化并不是导致恐龙灭绝的原因，因此对温度不敏感也就不是small animals活下来了而恐龙没有活下来的区别所在。
问题2：水里动物和陆上动物比较怎样，选的是水里植物比陆地植物受影响少一些。
问题3：灾难论忽略了什么这个问题，选忽略了fossil的证据。（因为对温度敏感的动物的fossil证明了灾难论是不对的）

V27:
遇到了那道问水植物和陆地植物的区别，问题问二者有什么不同，就是选那个水里的受影响小，如果碰到可以定位，这是一道很简单的题，文中很好找，别担心，可是第二个问题没遇到呢

V28:
第一段，讲灭绝论，
第二段，讲灭绝论的缺陷，根据动物化石。
第三段说植物的绝种对恐龙灭绝的影响。说小动物和水生动物对植物的依赖要小于恐龙（此处有细节题），
第四段总结说不能完全否定灭绝论如何如何。

V29:
前面没有问题，第三段说植物毁灭导致陆地大食草恐龙的灭绝这一说法没有推翻之前第一段说的小行星撞击论的原因是可能是因为小行星撞击产生的灰尘影响了光合 作用，从而导致植物死掉的，而植物死掉论的影响那段说到对陆生的大恐龙的影响比小动物大，而对陆生动物的影响比水生动物大，这里有题。

V30:
物种灭绝
还有个说物种灭绝的，比较长，但题比较好做
第一段说某个P时期末物种大灭绝，传统认为是喜马拉雅山的什么板块运动造成的火山喷发导致的，但被作者否认，火山喷发不会导致那么多生物死光光。
第二段说其实是P时期末板快怎么动了，海平面就下去了，海岸生物死了，空气含氧底了，海水含氧气也少了，然后水生物死了，又放出什么气，导致陆地生物也死了。总之就是一串反应，具体关系当时就没怎么搞清楚。最后说火山喷发也导致了气候进一步的不稳定，加巨了灭绝 （有题目，问火山喷发的作用好象，我选了火山喷发是导致生物灭绝一系列因素中的一个）
volcanic eruption，第一段说V引发了很多不好的事情，如species extinction等；第二段说SE不是由V引起的，是其他原因导致了sea level become lower等，后面忘记了。。。
考到的题目中有：
1．火山喷发的作用，我选了火山喷发是导致生物灭绝一系列因素中的一个，选项E。
2．一个时期的晚期（注意文章中有提到那个时期的早期和晚期，晚期是物种灭绝的开始），选项中的什么没有发生？我选了increasingly instable climate，剩下的选项都可以找到。
3．问海洋生物由于海平面的下降而搁浅暴露的沙滩上，选项中哪一个是第一个consequence，我选了这些生物组织的氧化。

V31:
Pleistocene Megafauna 更新世动物灭绝  
史前（P开头的那个单词）大动物（M开头单词）灭绝理论 Quaternary extinction event
（1）P时期大动物灭绝很快，最早在亚非，接着到澳洲和美洲（都有具体年份说明的，比如15000年前），好奇怪。为什么呢？学者A说是因为人类活动。因为这些时间都对应着相应地区的人类频繁活动。为了进一步说明，A还说一：灭绝的都是那种又大又笨的，容易被人抓到，二：亚非的大动物灭绝的不如澳美的 drastically，是因为人类是突然到澳美洲的，大动物都来不及反应。（有题问道亚非动物灭绝的为什么比澳美缓慢）
（2）顺承上文，继续支持A（没有问道问题，没记得很多）不过有说道，历史上如果由CLIMATE造成的物种灭绝都是更大范围，而且大物种，小物种一起灭绝的，但这个P时段的灭绝只涉及大物种，所以还是认为还是人类干涉而不是气候。
（3）但是这个解释又两个counterargument，(但最后还是被作者反对掉了，说明作者是支持A的）counterargument一：根据fossil，P时代人类主要靠collect植物什么的过活，化石没有反映出人类hunting，作者反对，提出一句话：if hunting evidences are "small", then the collecting evidence are nonexistent. (这句话有考题，但有点忘了）；counterargument二：在那个时代人类捕猎水平不够，根本不可能造成那么多物种灭绝，说道要用rifle之类的才能造成，另外还说到，大动物如果被捕猎死的话，死相会有挣扎的痕迹，但是没有。最后作者还是把这个反对了下（没仔细看了）。

V32:
P 時代有全球範圍內的種族滅絕。一般都認為那個時候地球活動劇烈，火山頻繁爆發，這是導致宗族滅絕的原因。（這裏說了一堆火山爆發相關的描述，沒有太大意義。）段末最後一句是轉折，說就算火山爆發再厲害、牽涉範圍再大，也不可能導致那麼多種族的滅絕。
第二段： （主要是給出另一個對種族滅絕原因的解釋）
說種族滅絕應該有其他的原因。某某科學家發現了organic matter中的碳的成分異常。這個現象再聯繫到那個時代中的海平面下降。由此開始，帶來了一系列影響。大概就是說，海平面下降了，原來淺海中的生物就暴露在空氣中了，然後就引發了一系列變化。由失氧開始。（那個單詞我不認識，但是由詞根推斷應該是指失氧的反應）。就是空氣中氧的成分越來越少，碳越來越多。然後那些生命要活下去還不停地消耗氧，使這個情況惡化。然後海水裏的氧也越來越少，碳越來越多。然後怎麼著我忘了，就引起了其他變化，包括氣候的變化和火山爆發，都是這一系列變化中的。所以這才是種族滅絕的解釋。
題目我記不清了。

V33:
在P年代發生了大規模的物種滅絕。以前認為是火山噴發導致，...（列舉理由），但是火山噴發並不會造成如此巨大的影響。第二段：新解釋--海平面變化。P年代陸地連接，海平面下降，很多habitats顯露出來，生物過多導致過量的氧氣攝入和二氧化碳排放，同時海水中的氧氣含量也下降因為空氣中沒有足夠的氧氣溶入水中，marine animal因此遭殃；火山爆發等也加劇了環境變化的不穩定性。之後海平面重新上升，沿岸的habitats被毀，又海水中氧氣含量不夠，沿岸的物種因此滅絕。

V34:
海洋生物滅絕。講到以前科學家認為，海洋生物的滅絕跟火山爆發很有關係。但是第一段作者反駁說：火山爆發威力再大，也不至於造成這麼大規模的毀滅。這裏考到一個題，如果下面哪一項為true，可以證明作者第一段最後一句的內容：就是山爆發威力再大，也不至於造成這麼大規模的毀滅。我選的答案是：在subsequent發生的一些相當magnitude的火山爆發中，生物種類並沒有大規模滅絕。
然後講到南中國海曾經發生的一次火山爆發。很簡單，也沒考到。
然後作者開始探討深層次的原因，什麼造成了生物滅絕呢？可能是海平面下降，然後讓淺海的一些珊瑚啊亂七八糟的東西都暴露在空氣裏，然後一系列反應開始：
1) 暴露在空氣裏的動植物開始大量氧化(oxidation), 消耗了大量的氧氣。
2) 空氣裏的氧氣減少，造成溶解在海水裏的氧氣也減少，造成海水裏的生物大量死亡。這裏考到了一個題，就是動植物的habitat暴露在空氣裏，第一個造成的影響是什麼。答案有：海水下降(stupid), 溶解在水裏的氧氣減少(wrong), 好像答案是造成大量氧化。記得不是很清楚，不過很簡單。

以下摘自八神考古：

V35:
就是陨石撞地球的影响。讲了温度变化，nature in the extinction，crisis in the plant kingdom，dust...
第一段:星体撞地球的影响很难估计.一个人提出了Ca(这个单词开头)的理论,650 million年前的生物灭绝是climate change影响的.（八神妄语：应该是catastrophe理论）
第二段:反驳temperature影响.举例:有些对温度敏感的化石没有表现出任何的变化.最后说了croconile(单词不准确)这个东西 (八神妄语：莫非是crocodile?这东西那是相当的“冷血”，喜欢高温，据说分“公儿母儿”都要依靠温度。 )
(1.2段专门有个时期叫"cath开头的",一道题好象考到第一段和第二段都提到这个时期有什么作用) （八神妄语：莫非是Cretaceous 白垩纪？只能等后面的朋友验证了。During the Cretaceous，dinosaur 灭绝了。Or Catastrophe学派?
第三段:提出另一种理论.恐龙在好久的时候灭绝,但是animal in small form and freshwater生物 are less dependent on the terrestrial plant than are the animals on land. (这里有infer题).又说这些是由生物链的某一环节引起的,而这个环节就是最初一链:plant的减少: Crisis in the plant kingdom.
第四段:提出新理论,说是星体在撞击地球进入大气层的时候,产生的dust引起的.

V36:
恐龙那篇比较长一点，说恐龙灭绝可能是因为小行星撞地球后引起的气候大变，但若事实如此的话，小动物应该更容易灭亡，但是和化石的证据不符合。接下来说可能是因为气候变暖导致海平面上升，导致陆生植物减少，使得恐龙灭亡。这篇文章有一道题目似乎是说从此文中可知那些小动物和大动物比较有什么不同。我选的是他们没有大动物那么依赖陆生植物

V37:
恐龙灭绝那篇
1）问1，2段的作用： 答案我选  it offer(or discuss)difficulties in explaining the 恐龙灭绝的原因（总之是关于大灾难理论的缺陷的）  
2）Infer题：答案有：科学家们过分看重化石证据还是怎么的；科学家们忽略了或者强调了impact的作用；我选的忘了，不是这两个
3）好像有2个题都是关于谁更受食物链或气候的影响，有terrestrial plant, terrestrial animal, freshwater plant and animal

V38:
dinosaur 总共有四题。
1.primary purpose of the first two paragraph
第一段提到了C提论，但质疑
第二段是说C理论has some difficulties in explaining the dinosaur extinction at the end of C世纪
这个就是答案，我觉得
2.作者对C理论的看法，我觉得这点有点tricky,希望朋友们注意下哦
作者是说C理论have some difficulties in explaining,但注意，作者在最后一段提到了impact hypotheses,说C理论虽然有弊端，但还是能说明了the survival of reptile animals,即selective survival. 所以选答案时，注意不是对C理论的全盘否定，要结合开头第一段和最后一段作答。（八神妄语：找大负小正（作者态度）的答案）
3.一个选项JJ里已经有了，就是陆生动物比水生动物受到的影响大
4.还有一题，是问第三段的small animals, 因为恐龙是large terrestrial animals,而这一段提出了是plant crisis 导致了dinosaur的灭亡，问题是关于small animals 和dinosaur的比较的。JJ作者选的是small animals are less dependent on ..(好像是食物吧）

V39:
第一段：很多科学家认为恐龙灭绝是因为流星撞地球产生巨大impact（impact theory）可能原因是导致气候剧烈变化(catastrophy)，但化石发现与这个推断相违背。
第二段，如果气候剧烈变化，那某种鳄鱼因为对环境很敏感一定会灭绝，但化石表明它活了下来。因此catastrophy解释不对。
第三段，impact theory仍然可能正确因为他可能导致了地表植物减少。因为大型恐龙以地面植物为生所以灭绝，但小型动物，和在水里生活的动物很多存活了下来。
第四段，想不起来了


拼图：(八神妄语)白垩纪末期的大量物种灭绝的真实原因，直到目前为止也没有一个定论。科学家发表各种各样不同的理论，假说和推测，以期得到更合理的解释。八神大胆推断，GMAC（或者其党羽）在这篇文章的最后也不敢公然就说某某理论一定是对的，应该说一些，如果怎么怎么样，科学家就能得到某某更准确的推测这样的说法。综合新老JJ来看，本文应可归为新老观点对比型。（对物种灭绝原因的讨论）（注，有兴趣的朋友可以去百度百科看看相关资料，挺有意思的。）白垩纪末，物种大量灭绝，有科学家提出了“大灾难”catastrophe理论，说小行星撞击地球，海啸tsunami，地震earthquake，火山爆发erupt等等等等，真是一时间，天崩地裂，飞沙走石，大量物种（包括恐龙）就这么报销了。于是GMAC科研组就开始研究extinction的原因。从JJ作者们回忆的内容来看，这篇文章“老观点”应该是climate change，尤其是temperature decline造成了物种大量灭绝。然后反对“老观点”，说不是温度的事情。以恐龙和其他生物，如鳄鱼，化石的对比(fossil/petrifaction)，来反对老观点。“新观点”应该是从食物链角度来解释extinction。Dust遮蔽天日，绿色植物无法进行光合作用（或者是被海水淹没），继而枯萎死掉。食草动物（八神推测这里应该用食草恐龙为例）丧失食物来源，牺牲。食肉恐龙也没有吃的了，牺牲。经过一段时间，恐龙，这个统治地球1亿6千万年之久的霸者，最终消失了。但是animal in small form and freshwater生物 are less dependent on the terrestrial plant than are the animals on land. 所以其中一部分侥幸生还，延续香火至今。（注意：JJ里提到的crocodile应该是freshwater creatures的一种。）（八神提出几个无厘头问题，哪位朋友有兴趣咱们可以探讨一下：这个食肉恐龙sama是不是只吃恐龙？或者别的陆生有肉动物早都被龙龙们吃光啦？龙龙们怎么不到淡水里和crocodile拼命去呢？据说crocodile meat比较delicious。）


题：
（1）记得其中有一题问的是陨石impact对terrestrial animal大还是freshwater animal大。（推测为terrestrial animal）（animal in small form and freshwater生物 are less dependent on the terrestrial plant than are the animals on land.）
（2）主题题（很可能有）探讨物种灭绝的原因。（很可能含态度）（见题4）
（3）primary purpose of the first two paragraph。 JJ作者认为：第一段提到了C提论，但质疑；第二段是说C理论has some difficulties in explaining the dinosaur extinction at the end of C世纪。（答案）

（4）作者对C理论的看法，我觉得这点有点tricky,希望朋友们注意下哦。
作者是说C理论have some difficulties in explaining,但注意，作者在最后一段提到了impact hypotheses,说C理论虽然有弊端，但还是能说明了the survival of reptile animals,即selective survival. 所以选答案时，注意不是对C理论的全盘否定，要结合开头第一段和最后一段作答。（八神妄语：找大负小正（作者态度）的答案）

（5）还有一题，是问第三段的small animals, 因为恐龙是large terrestrial animals,而这一段提出了是plant crisis 导致了dinosaur的灭亡，问题是关于small animals 和dinosaur的比较的。JJ作者选的是small animals are less dependent on ..(好像是食物吧）（题5与题1同一个问small animal,一个问freshwater animal，GMAC能不能用点别的招儿了？黔驴技穷了？）





背景知识：

Pleistocene megafauna    更新世动物
In broad usage, the Holocene extinction event includes the notable disappearance of large mammals, known as megafauna, by the end of the last glacial period 9,000 to 13,000 years ago. Such disappearances have been considered as either a response to climate change, a result of the proliferation of modern humans, or both. These extinctions, occurring near the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary, are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event or Ice Age extinction event. However the Holocene extinction event continues through the events of the past several millennia and includes the present time.

These species appear to have died off as humans expanded out of Africa and Eurasia, the only continents that still retain a diversity of megafauna comparable to what was lost. Three theories have been given for these extinctions: hunting by the spreading humans, climatic change, and spreading disease. A combination of those explanations is also possible.

Human Hunting
This hypothesis was proposed 40 years ago by Paul S. Martin。This theory holds Pleistocene humans responsible for the megafaunal extinction. One variant, often referred to as overkill, portrays humans as hunting the megafauna to extinction within a relatively short period of time. Some of the direct evidence for this includes: fossils of megafauna found in conjunction with human remains, embedded arrows and tool cut marks found in megafaunal bones, and cave paintings that depict such hunting. Biogeographical evidence is also suggestive; the areas of the world where humans evolved currently have more of their Pleistocene megafaunal diversity (the elephants and rhinos of Asia and Africa) compared to other areas such as Australia, the Americas, Madagascar and New Zealand, areas where early humans were non-existent. Based on this evidence, a picture arises of the megafauna of Asia and Africa evolving with humans, learning to be wary of them, and in other parts of the world the wildlife appearing ecologically naive and easier to hunt. This is particularly true of island fauna, which display a dangerous lack of fear of humans.

The most convincing evidence of his theory is that 80% of the North American large mammal species disappeared within 1000 years of the arrival of humans on the Western Hemisphere continents. World wide extinctions seem to follow the migration of humans and to be most severe where humans arrived most recently and least severe where humans were originally – Africa (see figure at right). This suggests that in Africa, where humans evolved, prey animals and human hunting ability evolved together, so the animals evolved avoidance techniques. As humans migrated throughout the world and became more and more proficient at hunting, they encountered animals that had evolved without the presence of humans. Lacking the fear of humans that African animals had developed, animals outside of Africa were easy prey for human hunting techniques. It also suggests that this is independent of climate change

Circumstantially, the close correlation in time between the appearance of humans in an area and extinction there provides weight to this theory. This is perhaps the strongest evidence, as it is almost impossible that it could be coincidental when science has so many data points. For example, the woolly mammoth survived on islands despite worsening climatic conditions for thousands of years after the end of the last glaciation, but they died out when humans arrived around 1700 BC. The megafaunal extinctions covered a vast period of time and highly variable climatic situations. The earliest extinctions in Australia were complete approximately 30,000 BP, well before the last glacial maximum and before rises in temperature. The most recent extinction in New Zealand was complete no earlier than 500 BP and during a period of cooling. In between these extremes megafaunal extinctions have occurred progressively in such places as North America, South America and Madagascar with no climatic commonality. The only common factor that can be ascertained is the arrival of humans.

Climate Change
The size of a short faced bear compared with a human.An alternative explanation offered by many scientists is that the extinctions were caused by climatic change following the last Ice Age. Critics object that since there were multiple Ice Ages in the evolutionary history of many of the megafauna, it is rather implausible that only after the last glacial would there be such extinctions.

Some evidence weighs against this theory as applied to Australia. It has been shown that the prevailing climate at the time of extinction (40,000–50,000 BP) was similar to that of today, and that the extinct animals were strongly adapted to an arid climate. The evidence indicates that all of the extinctions took place in the same short time period, which was the time when humans entered the landscape. The main mechanism for extinction was likely fire (started by humans) in a then much less fire-adapted landscape. Isotopic evidence shows sudden changes in the diet of surviving species, which could correspond to the stress they experienced before extinction.





The mass extinction of the marine life nearly 93 million years ago would have been most likely determined by the lack of oxygen in the oceanic waters as an intense underwater volcanic activity was triggered, says a study co-authored by Steven Turgeon of the University of Alberta. For a long time volcanism was thought to have been the culprit犯人of the catastrophe, although this is the first time researchers find direct evidence that magma稀糊, 岩浆cooling in the ocean waters was responsible for the mass killing.The results of the study may also point towards how the Earth reacts to an increase in the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The evidence indicates that at the time, the oceanic current circulation was incredibly slow and the clime气候of the Earth much warmer than today, as the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere raised by 3 to 12 times the current one, allowing palm trees to grow as far as in the northern regions of Alaska.
"And now we have this magmatic pulse that happened at that time - a huge one by what we can tell - and that's what caused this chain reaction to drive the oxygen from the ocean and cause this mass extinction," Turgeon said. The event, known today as OAE2, determined the decrease of oxygen levels in the oceanic and maritime waters, while the carbon dioxide concentration reached a point several times higher than the current one.Rock formations found in South America and Italy, which formed the ocean floor in the middle of a period in Earth's history known as the Cretaceous seem to contain an osmium [化] 锇signature, remnant残余,残迹either from magmatism or from a meteorite impact. So far, there has been no evidence that any meteorite or other rock coming from space crashed on Earth during that respective period, although its presence can be accounted through a massive increase in the underwater volcanic activity, up to 50 times higher than today.The eruption most likely originated in the Caribbean tectonic plate and put large amounts of metals in the water, determining an increase in the growth of the phytoplankton浮游植物."When the plants died, this rain of organic matter fell through the marine water column and stripped剥, 剥去it of oxygen. And this anoxic缺氧的event in the deep waters led to the extinction of the flora and fauna动植物群that lived on the seafloor," said Timothy Bralower of the Pennsylvania State University. According to the study, the excess amount of carbon dioxide remained in the atmosphere for as much as 20,000 years, before returning to a concentration similar to the one we know today."It is short-lived and it is real, and it provides some insight to how the atmosphere works. Today we're just at the beginning, and we have really no way except for models to predict what is going to happen in the future," Bralower said about the possibility of a similar event taking place in the future.
**************************************************************
As far as Earth-shattering events go, nothing comes close to the mass extinction that punctuated the Permian period some 250 million years ago.
Around 95 percent of marine species and 70 percent of land species were abruptly wiped out (related photos).
So sharp is the break in the fossil record at this geologic boundary that scientists in the 1800s believed they were dealing with two separate, unrelated starts to life on Earth.
But what caused the Permian extinction is one of science's greatest mysteries.
In his newly published book Extinction: How Life on Earth Nearly Ended 250 Million Years Ago, Douglas Erwin explores the many theories put forth to explain the phenomenon, from plate tectonics to meteor strikes.
Erwin, a paleobiologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., doesn't pinpoint a definite culprit in the quarter-billion-year-old whodunit—but he has a suspect.
The extinction coincided with the million-year-long eruption of Siberian flood basalts. A flood basalt is a giant volcanic eruption that coats vast stretches一段路程of land with basalt玄武岩lava熔岩.  
The Siberian event was one of the most massive volcanic events in the last 600 million years.
Erwin suggests the eruptions may have produced everything from acid rain to global warming, which helped kill the majority of life on Earth.
"The most likely explanation at this point is that the effects of the Siberian flood basalts were responsible," Erwin said.
No Crater
Until a decade ago scientists thought the Permian extinction was a continuous event that lasted for up to ten million years. But experts have now concluded that the die-offs occurred in two waves separated by eight million years or so.
The second wave was far more severe and may have happened over as little as 100,000 years.
The relative speed of the extinction seems to rule out gradual processes, like plate tectonics, as the cause. Instead, clues point to a sudden, catastrophic event, such as an extraterrestrial impact.
A giant asteroid小游星, 小行星that slammed into猛力抨击, 冲击Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula caused the last mass extinction on Earth, spelling the end of the dinosaurs some 65 million years ago.
The entire global ecosystem collapsed as dust from the impact blocked out the sun and blanketed the planet with thick ash灰烬, most scientists believe.
But no spike in iridium [化]铱—a metal that is rare on Earth but common in meteorites—or other telltale证据minerals have been found in the geological evidence from the time of the Permian extinction.
Most important, no physical evidence of an impact, such as a gigantic crater弹坑, during that period has been found anywhere on Earth.
"Most of what we know [about the Permian extinction] is consistent with [a meteor] impact, but we don't actually have any evidence that that's what happened," Erwin said.
Lava "Floods"
Instead, Erwin believes the answer can be found in the Siberian flood basalts.
The largest flood basalt region in the United States covers most of southeastern Washington State, stretching from the Pacific Ocean and into Oregon.
The eruptions of the Siberian flood basalts, which lasted up to a million years, spilled溢出, 溅出lava across an area larger than the continental U.S.
Most notably, the eruptions happen to coincide with the Permian extinction.
The problem is that no human has ever seen this type of eruption, which is much larger than any regular volcanic eruption. Scientists don't know what the climactic effects of such an event might be.
"Correlation is not causality," Erwin said. "We would like to know how this volcanic eruption actually killed stuff."
Erwin suggests a series of possible effects, including acid rain, which may have been produced by the sulfur released by volcanoes.
Geological evidence also shows that the volcanic event destroyed a lot of coal in the area where the eruptions took place.
The heating of the coal would have released carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere, producing a serious bout回合, 较量of global warming.
"I think it's all of those things put together that explained how the Earth's [life] was wiped out," Erwin said.

New Life
Peter Ward is a biologist at the University of Washington in Seattle and author of an upcoming book, The Greenhouse Extinctions.
He says the geologic record indicates that carbon dioxide concentrations skyrocketed immediately before the start of the extinctions and then stayed high for a few million years.
"A byproduct of these major volcanic events would have been enormous volumes of carbon dioxide and methane entering the atmosphere, which would have caused a short but rapid interval of global warming," Ward said.
But other scientists are not so sure.
"Most of the explanations up until now have sort of been arm-waving without any real evidence," said Michael Rampino, an earth scientist at New York University in New York City. "We have no smoking gun for the Permian extinction."
One thing is certain: Earth was a pretty bleak荒凉的, 凄凉的place to live at the time.
"The recovery from the mass extinction didn't even get started for four million years, and then it took another 10 to 20 million years for life to get diverse again," Erwin said.
"That's in remarkable contrast to most other mass extinctions, where the recovery is going within a few hundred thousand years."
Erwin says "recovery" may even be the wrong word to describe the process.
"Ecosystems of the Permian didn't recover, they're gone," he said. "Life had to construct new ecological relationships. This was a turning point in the history of life on Earth."

grlover51

好厉害

huzhongyan

谢谢！

hughlv

仰望lz。感谢收集

sophiadc

恶补一下

sing1985

哇塞，恐龙的长篇大论啊。
貌似外国人对恐龙都挺感兴趣似的，上次去恐龙博物馆见老多老外了。。。

sing1985

Zigong Dinosaur Museum, 9 km northeast of the center of Zigong, Sichuan, is a large museum which has been built at the world-famous Dashanpu Dinosaur Fauna. It is also the first professional dinosaur museum in China and one of the three largest dinosaur museums with burial site in the world.

Covering an area of over 66,000 square meters, Zigong Dinosaur Museum has a collection of fossil specimens almost including all the known dinosaur species in the Jurassic of 205-135 million years ago. It was regarded as “the best dinosaur museum in the world” by American Global Geography Magazine.

Started to build in April, 1984, Zigong Dinosaur Museum was opened to the public in the Spring Festival of 1987. For its wide-distributed reputation both in China and in the world, until now, Zigong Dinosaur Museum has accepted visitors approximately 7 million person times and acquired great reputation. Tens of leaders of China, such as, Hu Jintao, Qiao Shi, Zhang Aiping, Wan Li, Li Tieying and He nuli, as well as many experts and celebrities have visited the museum. Especially, in May 12, 2003, the Central Secretary-general and President of China, Mr. Hu Jintao visited this museum and showed his confirmation for the great success achieved by the museum.

Since 1989, Zigong dinosaurs have traveled around the world. They were displayed in 23 cities of many countries and regions, 14 times in total. These places include Japan, Thailand, Denmark, United States, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea and Hong Kong. The exhibitions abroad have attracted over 10 million person times. Meanwhile, Zigong dinosaurs have been displayed in more than 30 cities in China, as in Shanghai, Zhuhai, Beijing, Fuzhou and Shenzhen.

It has been entitled as one of the Forty Top Tourist Attractions in China, one of the first batch of National Geoparks, National AAAA Tourist Attraction, National Popular Science Educational Base for Teenagers, Advanced Unit of Cultural Work, one of the National Top Ten Exhibitions, Key Point Museum of Sichuan Province as well as one of the most Representative 30 China Architectures. It has also acquired the authentication of ISO International Environment Management System.


Reference：http://www.zdm.cn/en/dinosaur/news_view.asp?newsid=34

sing1985

1.Formation of Dinosaur Fossils
It is a long and complicated process of the formation of dinosaur fossils. Once a dinosaur died, its corpse must be buried rapidly by the sediments. The soft tissues often decomposed, but the hard parts could be preserved and be gradually fossilized.

2、Discovery
Discovery of dinosaur fossils is tough work which including following three steps. First of all, collection of geologic and paleontologic materials of local areas, especially investigation reports and research materials made by former researchers; secondly, preparation of essential equipments for fieldwork, including geologic bags and hammers, a box and needle, camera as well as a large geologic map; third, according to the preservation characteristics of dinosaur fossils (they were only preserved in the Mesozoic sediments); so, cast the eyes to the sediments of the Mesozoic, especially search the places such as bluff, gully, sidehill and areas with thin vegetation.

3、Excavation
Excavation of dinosaur fossils is a complicated and systematic project. Firstly, it is the collection of the material about the fossils planed to be excavated and the material about local areas’ geology, environment, communication and climate, as well as the establishment of a detailed excavation plan according to the materials collected; next, it is the organization of a team made up of scientific research personnel, skilled workers, servicemen and guards, as well as the preparation of tools, materials and living articles; third, it is the excavation on site, the main tasks of which including the clearance of the earth and sandstones on the surface of the fossils, and then continuous excavation till the fossils been exposed; after that, numbering, registration, taking photos, drawing pictures as well as the protection of the surface fossils; last, taking out of the fossils (together with some wall rocks).

4、Restoration
The restoration of dinosaur fossils means the clearance of wall rocks adhered to the fossils. Two kinds of methods are involved in this work: physical and chemical method. The former means the clearance of wall rocks with machine or by hands while the latter means eroding wall rocks with chemical preparation, surely, the chemical preparation only causes chemical reaction with wall rocks but not damage the fossils. Meanwhile, the restoration of the fossils should be done under the instruction of scientific research personnel and it should also focus on the collection of correlative source materials that will do great help for the research and renovation of dinosaur fossils in the future.

5、Research
The basic research work concerning about dinosaur fossils is the taxonomic research, that is, the confirmation of the fossil’s genre and name. In the first step, researchers should carry out detailed measurement, inspection, description, plotting and photographing; then, on the basis of having consulted a great deal of correlative literature material and compared to other known fossils of the same genre in and out of China. Only in this way, can researchers confirm its exact systematic position and scientific denomination.  

6、Renovation
The renovation of dinosaur fossils is the process of renovating the missing parts of a dinosaur skeleton and making it a complete one. First of all, it is the collection of correlative research material of this specimen (including letters, pictures and data); next, it is the restoration of the missing parts which should be done under the instruction of scientific research personnel; last, it is the painting of the renovated parts which should be similar to original fossils’ color and luster so as to mix the false with the genuine.

7、Installation
How could a dinosaur’s skeleton be installed? Firstly, scientific research personnel should design a living gesture of dinosaur and draw an installation picture; then, make supportive steel frame according to the picture; last, fix the bones on the frame in sequence. Often, pelvic girdles should be the first; then, the dorsal, cervical and caudal vertebrates as well as legs and ribs; last, the head. In this way, a vivid dinosaur stands up.  


Reference：http://www.zdm.cn/en/dinosaur/News_View.asp?NewsID=69

delan714

真的变成恐龙的长篇大论了，呵呵~

sing1985

大家都出力嘛才是Team Work! 才对得起那么多的CDer的狗狗和帖子