Art movement, chiefly of painters, that dominated the European and American art market in the early to mid-1980s. It was controversial both in the quality of its production and in the highly commercialized aspects of its presentation. Its practitioners, including Julian Schnabel and Anselm Kiefer, returned to portraying the human body and other recognizable objects, in reaction to the highly intellectualized abstract art of the 1970s. Their art was characterized by a tense yet playful presentation of objects in a primitivist manner, painted in vivid color harmonies, conveying inner tension and alienation. See also Expressionism.
短对话，基本上都是什么天气不错，但是我有paper要做之类的。有一个是说xx was under the weather.男的说，我让她去医院了，现在她看起来像另外一个人。答案应该是xx is better now.
Artistic style in which the artist depicts not objective reality but the subjective emotions that objects or events arouse. This aim is accomplished through distortion and exaggeration of shape and the vivid or violent application of color. Its roots are found in the works of Vincent van Gogh, Edvard Munch, and James Ensor. In 1905 the movement took hold with a group of German artists known as Die Brücke; their works influenced such artists as Georges Rouault, Chaim Soutine, Max Beckmann, Kathe Kollwitz, and Ernst Barlach. The group of artists known as Der Blaue Reiter were also considered Expressionists. Expressionism was the dominant style in Germany after World War I; postwar Expressionists included George Grosz and Otto Dix. Its emotional qualities have been adopted by other 20th-century art movements. See also Abstract Expressionism
Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extending from the violet end of the visible light region to the X-ray region. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is divided into three bands: UVA (also called black light), UVB (responsible for the best-known effects on organisms), and UVC (which does not reach the earth's surface). Most UV rays from the sun are absorbed by the earth's ozone layer. UV has low penetrating power, so its effects on humans are limited to the skin. These effects include stimulation of production of vitamin D, sunburn, suntan, aging signs, and carcinogenic changes. UV radiation is also used to treat jaundice in newborns, to sterilize equipment, and to produce artificial light.
Study of the ultraviolet (UV) spectra of astronomical objects. It has yielded much information about chemical abundances and processes in interstellar matter, the sun, and certain other stellar objects, such as white dwarf stars. UV astronomy became feasible once rockets could carry instruments above earth's atmosphere, which absorbs most electromagnetic radiation of UV wavelengths. Since the early 1960s, several unmanned satellite observatories carrying UV telescopes, including the Hubble Space Telescope, have collected UV-wavelength data on objects such as comets, quasars, nebulae, and distant star clusters. See also spectrum.
Electromagnetic radiation of extremely short wavelength produced by the deceleration of charged particles or the transitions of electrons in atoms. X rays travel at the speed of light and exhibit phenomena associated with waves, but experiments indicate that they can also behave like particles (see wave-particle duality). On the electromagnetic spectrum, they lie between gamma rays and ultraviolet radiation. They were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, who named them X rays for their unknown nature. They are used in medicine to diagnose bone fractures, dental cavities, and cancer; to locate foreign objects in the body; and to stop the spread of malignant tumors. In industry, they are used to analyze and detect flaws in structures.
Form of psychotherapy in which several patients or clients discuss their personal problems, usually in the presence of a therapist or counselor. In one approach to group therapy, the chief aim is to raise members' awareness and morale and combat feelings of isolation by cultivating a sense of belonging to the group; an outstanding example is Alcoholics Anonymous. The other principal approach strives to foster free discussion and uninhibited self-revelation; members are helped to self-understanding and more successful behavior through mutual examination of their reactions to people in their lives, including one another.
Laughs: Rhythmic Bursts of Social Glue
By NATALIE ANGIER
Here is a sampling of knee slappers to jump-start your day:
"Got to go now!"
"I see your point."
"It must be nice."
"Look! It's Andre."
Hey, wait a minute. Where are the guffaws, the chuckles, at the very least a polite titter or two? Get me laughtrack! Doesn't this deadbeat crowd know that such lines are genuine howlers, field-tested fomenters of laughter among ordinary groups of people in ordinary social settings?
We're not talking Aristophanes here, or even Phyllis Diller. We're talking the sort of laughter that we give and receive every day while strolling with friends in the park, or having lunch in the company cafeteria, or chatting over the telephone. The sort of social laughter that punctuates casual conversations so regularly and unremarkably that we never think about or notice it -- but that we would surely, sorely miss if it were gone.
One person who has thought about and noticed laughter in great detail is Dr. Robert R. Provine, a professor of neurobiology and psychology at the University of Maryland Baltimore County. Dr. Provine has become a professional laugh-tracker, if you will, an anthropologist of our amusement, asking the deliciously obvious questions that science has not deigned to consider before. He has analyzed what, physically, a laugh is, what its vocal signature looks like and how it differs from the auditory shape of a spoken word or a cry or any other human utterance.
He has asked when people laugh and why, what sort of comments elicit laughter, whether women laugh more than men, whether a person laughs more while speaking or while listening. He has studied the rules of laughter: when in a conversation a laugh will occur, and when, for one reason or another, the brain decides it is taboo. He has compared human laughter to the breathy, panting vocalizations that chimpanzees make while they are being chased or tickled, and that any primatologist or caretaker will firmly describe as chimpanzee laughter.
Dr. Provine has eavesdropped on 1,200 bouts of laughter among people in malls and other public places, noting down the comments that preceded each laugh and compiling a list of what he calls his "greatest hits" of laugh generators, which include witless-isms like those quoted above. In so doing he has made a discovery at once startling and perfectly sensible: most of what we laugh at in life is not particularly funny or clever but merely the stuff of social banter, the glue that binds a group together. Even the comparatively humorous laugh-getters are not exactly up to Seinfeld, lines like, "She's got a sex disorder: she doesn't like sex;" or "You don't have to drink. Just buy us drinks." It is probably a good thing that our laugh-meters are set so low, because very few of us are natural wits, and those that are often get into bad moods and refuse to say a single clever thing for entire evenings at a time.
Dr. Provine, a tall man with a well-groomed academic-issue beard who in profile looks faintly like the actor Fernando Rey, is neither clownish nor severe, somehow remaining animated about his subject without becoming silly. He can laugh loudly on command to demonstrate his points, which is something many people refuse to do. In videos, when Dr. Provine is shown approaching strangers on the Baltimore waterfront, telling them he is studying laughter and asking them to laugh for him. Usually, people give sidelong glances to their companions, grin, fuss with their hair, and as he persists, they grow annoyed. "I can't laugh on command," they complain. "Tell me a joke first."
To Dr. Provine, that difficulty reveals something important about the nature of laughter. We can smile on command, albeit stiffly, and we can certainly talk on command, but laughter has an essential spontaneous element to it. It is a vocalization of a mood state, rather than a cognitive act, and as such it is difficult to fake, just as it is hard to force out tears. Those who are good at laughing on cue, said Dr. Provine, often have stage experience.
Dr. Provine summarizes much of his recent research in the current issue of American Scientist, and he recently presented results at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience in San Diego. His work departs sharply from the well-mined territory of humor analysis, in which scholars gather at conferences to discuss the ontology of Woody Allen or Monty Python and leave one with a distinct taste of sawdust in the mouth. Dr. Provine is not interested in formal comic material, or why some like Lenny Bruce and others Red Skelton, but in laughter as a universal social act.
"His work is extremely interesting, insightful," said Dr. William F. Fry, a psychiatrist at the Stanford University School of Medicine. "He's doing the sort of things that should have been done 300 years ago." Dr. Fry is no joke himself, having studied the aerobic, physical and emotional benefits that accrue when a person laughs. One hundred laughs, he discovered, is equivalent to 10 minutes spent rowing.
Lest it appear that Dr. Provine is in the business of amusing himself and making strangers uncomfortable, he elaborates on the many quite serious questions that the study of laughter addresses. Laughter gives you a foothold on the neurobiology of behavior, he said. "It is species-typical, everybody does it, and it is simple in structure, which gives you powerful leverage on the neurology behind it," he said.
"Looking at a common human behavior that is socially interesting gives us the opportunity to go back and forth between the neural circuitry and a higher ssocial act," he said. Dr. Provine compares studying a simple system like laughter for clues to more complex types of human behavior to biologists' use of a simple organism like yeast or nematodes for delving into the thicket of genetics or brain development.
He points out that linguists and scientists who study speech are always searching for the deep underlying structure to language, those phonemes that might be recognized as language units by everybody, regardless of whether they are French, Chinese or New Guinean. But finding the common currency of language has proved quite difficult. "If you're interested in the mechanisms of speech, wouldn't it be useful to look at a vocalization that all individuals produce in the same way, such as laughter?" he asks rhetorically.
Laughter also has the useful property of being contagious, he said. When you hear laughter, you tend to start laughing yourself -- hence the logic behind the sitcom's ubiquitous laugh-track. And it is easy to assess whether the brain's circuitry for recognizing laughter has been activated, Dr. Provine said. "You don't need to use electrodes, or wait for clinical cases of brain lesions," to study laughter recognition, he said. All you have to do is see if the person laughs on hearing laughter.
The infectiousness of laughter also makes it a particularly interesting social activity to explore. Few behaviors, short of shouting "Fire" in a movie theater, can have such a dramatic, swelling impact on group behavior as can the burst of a merry chime of laughter. Indeed, Dr. Provine came to laughter research after studying another highly contagious human behavior: yawning.
Before he could hope to get at any neural circuitry, Dr. Provine first had to do the basics, starting with what a laugh looks like. He brought recorded samples of human laughter to the sound analysis laboratory at the National Zoo in Washington, where the usual subjects of research are bird songs and monkey screams. There he and colleagues generated laugh waveforms and laugh frequency spectrums. They determined that the average laugh consisted of short bursts of vowel-based notes -- haha or hehe -- each note lasting about 75 milliseconds and separated by rests of 210 milliseconds. Whether a person laughs with a shy giggle, a joyous musical peal, or a braying hee-haw, "the key is the burst of vowel-like sounds produced in a regular rhythmic pattern," he said.
A typical laugh also has a decrescendo structure, starting strong and ending soft. A laugh played backward, going from low to high bursts, sounds slightly strange, almost frightening, and yet it is still clearly recognizable as a laugh, just as a birdsong played backward would be; the same cannot be said for a human conversation played backwards. "Laughter has more in common with animal calls than with what we think of as modern speech," Dr. Provine said.
Dr. Provine and his students also began gathering hundreds of episodes of everyday laughter. They were startled by the ordinariness of the comments that would elicit laughter. Equally surprising was how often people laughed at their own statements. The standard image of the comedian is the deadpan performer who hardly grins while the audience members convulse in laughter. But the average speaker chattering away laughs 46 percent more frequently than do those listening to the spiel.
There proved to be wide variations based on sex in the ratio of speaker-to-listener laughter. A man talking to a male listener laughs only
sslightly more than his companion will in response. If a woman is talking to a woman, she laughs considerably more than does her audience. By contrast, a male speaker with a female hanging on his words laughs 7 percent less often than does his appreciative hearer. And the biggest discrepancy of all is found when a woman speaks to a man, in which case she laughs 127 percent more than her male associate, who perhaps is otherwise occupied with planning a witty rejoinder.
Speakers and listeners alike abide by rules while laughing. Laughter almost never intrudes upon the phrase structure of speech. It never interrupts a thought. Instead, it occurs as a kind of punctuation, to reflect natural pauses in speech. This is true for listeners as well as the talkers: they do not laugh in the middle of a speaker's phrase, Dr. Provine said. And in fact to do so may be evidence of psychological abnormality; a crazy person may not wait for you to finish speaking before interrupting with a booming HA!
The lawfulness of the relationship between laughter and speech, said Dr. Provine, indicates a segregation of brain processes devoted to one or the other. "It suggests that you have mutually exclusive but interacting vocal processes," he said. "And it seems speech is dominant over laughter, because laughter does not intrude on speech."
What, then, is the purpose of all this lawfully punctuating chuckling? Laughter is, above all, a social act, Dr. Provine said. You are far more likely to talk to yourself while alone than laugh to yourself (unless you are watching television or reading, in which case you are engaged vicariously in a social event). Dr. Provine sees laughter as a within-group modulator, something designed to influence the tenor of an assemblage, to synchronize mood and possibly subsequent actions. He compares laughter to the barking of dogs, which coordinates disparate elements into a more or less like-minded team. Joyous laughter can help solidify friendships and pull people into the fold.
As with any group behavior, though, laughter has its menacing streak. The flip side of mirthful laughter may not be tears, but jeering, malicious laughter, used not to include people in one's group, but to exclude the laughable misfit. To make his point about the downside of laughter, and how it can turn deadly, Dr. Provine shows a clip from the movie "Goodfellas," a scene in which the volatile Joe Pesci character laughs together with his fellow thugs before smashing a bottle of alcohol into a poor intruder's face.
Despots historically have feared the power of laughter; comedians during the Nazi era in Germany, for example, were kept on the Gestapo's shortest leash. "Fashions on laughter change, but one thing that stays the same is, you can't laugh at people in power," Dr. Provine said. The sanction holds for the personal as well as the political. Laugh at your boss, and you may be the recipient of that practical joke known as the little pink slip.
The Science of Laughter
By: Robert Provine Summary: Far from mere reactions to jokes, hoots and hollers are serious business: They're innate -- and important -- social tools. Whether overheard in a crowded restaurant, punctuating the enthusiastic chatter of friends, or as the noisy guffaws on a TV laugh track, laughter is a fundamental part of everyday life. It is so common that we forget how strange -- and important -- it is. Indeed, laughter is a "speaking in tongues" in which we're moved not by religious fervor but by an unconscious response to social and linguistic cues. Stripped of its variation and nuance, laughter is a regular series of short vowel-like syllables usually transcribed as "ha-ha," "ho-ho" or "hee-hee." These syllables are part of the universal human vocabulary, produced and recognized by people of all cultures.
Given the universality of the sound, our ignorance about the purpose and meaning of laughter is remarkable. We somehow laugh at just the right times, without consciously knowing why we do it. Most people think of laughter as a simple response to comedy, or a cathartic mood-lifter. Instead, after 10 years of research on this little-studied topic, I concluded that laughter is primarily a social vocalization that binds people together. It is a hidden language that we all speak. It is not a learned group reaction but an instinctive behavior programmed by our genes. Laughter bonds us through humor and play.
Nothing to joke about
Despite its prominence in daily life, there is little research on how and why we laugh. I thought it was high time that we actually observed laughing people and described when they did it and what it meant. Research on laughter has led me out of my windowless laboratories into a more exciting social world of laughing gas, religious revivals, acting classes, tickle wars, baby chimpanzees and a search for the most ancient joke.
As a starting point, three undergraduate students and I observed 1,200 people laughing spontaneously in their natural environments, from the student union to city sidewalks. Whenever we heard laughter, we noted the gender of the speaker (the person talking immediately before laughter occurred) and the audience (those listening to the speaker), whether the speaker or the audience laughed, and what the speaker said immediately before the laughter.
While we usually think of laughter as coming from an audience after a wisecrack from a single speaker, contrary to expectation, the speakers we observed laughed almost 50% more than their audiences. The study also showed that banal comments like, "Where have you been?" or "It was nice meeting you, too" -- hardly knee-slappers -- are far more likely to precede laughter than jokes. Only 10% to 20% of the laughter episodes we witnessed followed anything joke-like. Even the most humorous of the 1,200 comments that preceded laughter weren't necessarily howlers: "You don't have to drink, just buy us drinks!" and "Was that before or after I took my clothes off?." being two of my favorites. This suggests that the critical stimulus for laughter is another person, not a joke.
Students in my classes confirmed the social nature of laughter by recording the circumstances of their laughter in diaries. After excluding the vicarious social effects of media (television, radio, books, etc.), its social nature was striking: Laughter was 30 times more frequent in social than solitary situations. The students were much more likely to talk to themselves or even smile when alone than to laugh. However happy we may feel, laughter is a signal we send to others and it virtually disappears when we lack an audience.
Laughter is also extremely difficult to control consciously. Try asking a friend to laugh, for example. Most will announce, "I can't laugh on command," or some similar statement. Your friends' observations are accurate -- their efforts to laugh on command will be forced or futile. It will take them many seconds to produce a laugh, if they can do it at all. This suggests that we cannot deliberately activate the brain's mechanisms for affective expression. Playfulness, being in a group, and positive emotional tone mark the social settings of most laughs.
Giggly girls, explained
Linguist Deborah Tannen described gender differences in speech in her best-selling book, You Just Don't Understand (Ballantine, 1991). The gender differences in laughter may be even greater. In our 1,200 case studies, my fellow researchers and I found that while both sexes laugh a lot, females laugh more. In cross-gender conversations, females laughed 126% more than their male counterparts, meaning that women tend to do the most laughing while males tend to do the most laugh-getting. Men seem to be the main instigators of humor across cultures, which begins in early childhood. Think back to your high school class clown -- most likely he was a male. The gender pattern of everyday laughter also suggests why there are more male than female comedians. (Rodney Dangerfield likely gets more respect than he claims.)
Given the differences in male and female laugh patterns, is laughter a factor in meeting, matching and mating? I sought an answer in the human marketplace of newspaper personal ads. In 3,745 ads placed on April 28, 1996 in eight papers from the Baltimore Sun to the San Diego Union-Tribune, females were 62% more likely to mention laughter in their ads, and women were more likely to seek out a "sense of humor" while men were more likely to offer it. Clearly, women seek men who make them laugh, and men are eager to comply with this request. When Karl Grammar and Irenaus Eibl-Eibesfeldt studied spontaneous conversations between mixed-sex pairs of young German adults meeting for the first time, they noted that the more a woman laughed aloud during these encounters, the greater her self-reported interest in the man she was talking to. In the same vein, men were more interested in women who laughed heartily in their presence. The personal ads and the German study complement an observation from my field studies: The laughter of the female, not the male, is the critical index of a healthy relationship. Guys can laugh or not, but what matters is that women get their yuks in.
In many societies world wide -- ranging from the Tamil of Southern India to the Tzeltal of Mexico -- laughter is self-effacing behavior, and the women in my study may have used it as an unconscious vocal display of compliance or solidarity with a more socially dominant group member. I suspect, however, that the gender patterns of laughter are fluid and shift subconsciously with social circumstance. For example, the workplace giggles of a young female executive will probably diminish as she ascends the corporate ladder, but she will remain a barrel of laughs when cavorting with old chums. Consider your own workplace. Have you ever encountered a strong leader with a giggle? Someone who laughs a lot, and unconditionally, may be a good team player, but they'll seldom be a president.
The laughter virus
As anyone who has ever laughed at the sight of someone doubled over can attest, laughter is contagious. Since our laughter is under minimal conscious control, it is spontaneous and relatively uncensored. Contagious laughter is a compelling display of Homo sapiens, a social mammal. It strips away our veneer of culture and challenges the hypothesis that we are in full control of our behavior. From these synchronized vocal outbursts come insights into the neurological roots of human social behavior and speech.
Consider the extraordinary 1962 outbreak of contagious laughter in a girls' boarding school in Tanzania. The first symptoms appeared on January 30, when three girls got the giggles and couldn't stop laughing. The symptoms quickly spread to 95 students, forcing the school to close on March 18. The girls sent home from the school were vectors for the further spread of the epidemic. Related outbreaks occurred in other schools in Central Africa and spread like wildfire, ceasing two-and-a-half years later and afflicting nearly 1,000 people.
Before dismissing the African outbreak as an anomaly, consider our own technologically triggered mini-epidemics produced ,by television laugh tracks. Laugh tracks have accompanied most television sitcoms since September 9, 1950. At 7:00 that evening, "The Hank McCune Show" used the first laugh track to compensate for being filmed without a live audience. The rest is history. Canned laughter may sound artificial, but it makes TV viewers laugh as if they were part o live theater audience.
The irresistibility of others' laughter has its roots in the neurological mechanism of laugh detection. The fact that laughter is contagious raises the intriguing possibility that humans have an auditory laugh detector -- a neural circuit in the brain that responds exclusively to laughter. (Contagious yawning may involve a similar process in the visual domain.) Once triggered, the laugh detector activates a laugh generator, a neural circuit that causes us in turn to produce laughter.
Furthermore, laughter is not randomly scattered through speech. A speaker may say "You are going where?...ha-ha," but rarely, "You are going...ha-ha...where?" This is evidence of "the punctuation effect" -- the tendency to laugh almost exclusively at phrase breaks in speech. This pattern requires that speech has priority over laughter.
The occurrence of speaker laughter at the end of phrases suggests that a neurologically based process governs the placement of laughter in speech, and that different brain regions are involved in the expression of cognitively oriented speech and the more emotion-laden vocalization of laughter. During conversation, speech trumps -- that is, it inhibits -- laughter.
Mediocre medicine
Authorities from the Bible to Reader's Digest remind us that "laughter is the best medicine." Print and broadcast reporters produce upbeat, often frothy stories like "A Laugh a Day Keeps the Doctor Away." A best-selling Norman Cousins book and a popular Robin Williams film Patch Adams amplified this message. But left unsaid in such reports is a jarring truth: Laughter did not evolve to make us feel good or improve our health. Certainly, laughter unites people, and social support has been shown in studies to improve mental and physical health. Indeed, the presumed health benefits of laughter may be coincidental consequences of its primary goal: bringing people together.
Laughter is an energetic activity that raises our heart rate and blood pressure, but these physiological effects are incompletely documented and their medicinal benefits are even less certain. Lennart Levi, of the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, reported that comedy activates the body's "fight or flight" system, increasing catecholamine levels in urine, a measure of activation and stress. Lee Berk, DHSc, of the Loma Linda School of Medicine, countered with a widely cited study that reported that laughter reduced catecholamines and other hormonal measures of sympathetic activation. This reduction in stress and associated hormones is the mechanism through which laughter is presumed to enhance immune function. Unfortunately, Berk's studies show at best a biological response to comedy. His reports included only five experimental subjects, never stated whether those subjects actually laughed, and were presented in only three brief abstracts.
Does a sense of humor or a lighthearted personality add years to your life? Not necessarily. A large-scale study by Howard Friedman, Ph.D., professor of psychology at the laceType w:st="on">UniversitylaceType> of laceName w:st="on">CalifornialaceName> at Riverside, found optimism and sense of humor in childhood to be inversely related to longevity. This may be because people with untempered optimism indulge in risk-taking, thinking, "I'll be okay."
Pain reduction is one of laughter's promising applications. Rosemary Cogan, Ph.D., a professor of psychology at laceName w:st="on">TexaslaceName> laceName w:st="on">TechlaceName> laceType w:st="on">UniversitylaceType>, found that subjects who laughed at a Lily Tomlin video or underwent a relaxation procedure tolerated more discomfort than other subjects. Humor may help temper intense pain. James Rotton, Ph.D., of FloridaInternationalUniversity, reported that orthopedic surgery patients who watched comedic videos requested fewer aspirin and tranquilizers than the group that viewed dramas. Humor may also help us cope with stress. In a study by Michelle Newman, Ph.D., an assistant professor of psychology at PennStateUniversity, subjects viewed a film about three grisly accidents and had to narrate it either in a humorous or serious style. Those who used the humorous tone had the lowest negative affect and tension.
A problem with these studies is that none of them separate the effects of laughter from those of humor. None allow for the possibility that presumed effects of laughter or humor may come from the playful settings associated with these behaviors. And none evaluate the uniqueness of laughter by contrasting it with other vocalizations like shouting.
Rigorous proof that we can reduce stress and pain through laughter remains an unrealized but reasonable prospect. While we wait for definitive evidence, it can't hurt -- and it's certainly enjoyable -- to laugh. So, a guy walks into a bar...
ABSTRACT
Earthfill and rockfill dams with clay core have some problems such as voluminous material in cores. Therefore, they need a long time for construction, and during constructing this type of core moisture and compactibility must be controlled. Besides, clay is sensitive to climate. Other phenomena that may occur in clay core dams are piping and hydraulic fracture.
Due to these problems and for constructing more economical earth dams an alternative approach is developed by substituting clay core with asphaltic concrete core or asphaltic lining. They are mainly used in areas where natural impermeable materials of sufficient quality or quantity are not available.
This research considers presents the advantages of using asphalt in lining dams and in asphaltic concrete core dams. To show the ability of asphalt in dam industry, a comparison is dpne between an asphaltic concrete core dam and an asphaltic lining dam with a clay core dam is done. This comparsion includes seepage and stability analyses. These analyses have been performed by commercially available seepage analysis is done by Ansys software and the stability anlysis by Plaxis software.
Bituminous core and bituminous lining are excelent waterproofing materials and well established in hydraulic engineering for many decades. Bituminous facings are used to waterproof the upstream faces of dams or embankments, or the bottoms of resevoirs which consist of materials of inadequate water-tightness (gravel or sandygravel soils, morainic or alluval soils and rockfill), as an alternative to waterproofing by means of natural materials (clay, silty clay, etc.) where natural impermeable materials of sufficient quality or quantity are not available[2].
Using natural materials, the watertightness is generally provided by in impervious core, while with bituminous materials (exept for a few recent applications) it is usally provided by a continuous watertight revetment on upstream face. The characteristics of these facings are manifold and are strictly related to the properties of the structure on which thay are applied, namely: Bituminouse materials generally satisfy these requirements rather well, even if some of them may seem to conflict.
Different types of structures encountered, variety of ambient conditions, different evaluations of requirements, variety of bituminous material available and different construction techniques have resulted in considerable differences in the features and in the design of the alternatives used for bituminous facings. It is also sometimes difficult to find out whether considerable differences in bituminous facing depended on an actual and rational interpretation of technical requirements or mainly on the sensitivity and the artistic inspiration of the designer [2].
Since clay core dams have been used for many years the efficiency of this type of dam is well documented. Therefore, in this research asphaltic concrete core dam and asphaltic facing dam are compared with clay core dam. To validate the result Maejaran dam which an asphaltic concrete core dam (located in the north of Iran in close to Ramsar city) is replaced to an asphaltic lining dam and a clay core dam. The dimensions of the dams are the same to each other. Cross section of each dams are present in Figures 1, 2 and 3.
逻辑 logic
关于推论与论证之研究。在逻辑中，一个论证的组成是，一组为真的陈述（前提）是使得进一步陈述（论证的结论）为真的充分条件。逻辑可分为演绎逻辑、归纳逻辑以及所谓非形式谬误的研究（参阅deduction、induction、fallacy, formal and informal）。现代形式逻辑以命题与演绎论证为主题，并从这些命题与演绎论证的内容抽离出它们所包含的逻辑形式。逻辑学家使用符号来表示那些逻辑形式，便于推论，也便于验证有效性。逻辑常项包括（一）命题连结词，如「非」（@8(logicNon.jpg)，「且」（@8(logicAnd.jpg)，「或」（@8(logicOr.jpg)，「若－则」（()，（二）存在量词与全称量词「(@8(logicSome.jpgx))（可读作「对于至少有一个体，称为x，……为真」）以及「(@8(logicAll.jpgx))（「对于每一个体，称为x，……为真」）。再加上（三）等同概念（以=表示）与（四）一些属于逻辑的谓词。单单上述（一）的逻辑常项之研究，称作命题演算（propositional calculus）。涉及上述（一）、（二）与（四）者，属一阶谓词演算（first-order predicate calculus）领域。若强调上述（三），则加入「不等同」之词。逻辑是哲学与数学领域的重要基础。亦请参阅deontic logic、modal logic。
Study of inference and argument. In logic, an argument consists of a set of statements (the premises) whose truth is claimed to be sufficient for the truth of a further statement (the conclusion of the argument). Logic may be divided into deductive logic, inductive logic, and the study of what are often called informal fallacies (see deduction, induction, fallacy). Modern formal logic takes as its main subject matter propositions and deductive arguments, and it abstracts from their content the logical forms they embody. The logician uses a symbolic notation to express these logical forms and to facilitate inference and tests of validity. The logical constants include (1) such propositional connectives as “not” (symbolized as ¬), “and” (symbolized as ∧), “or” (symbolized as ∨), and “if-then” (symbolized as ⊃), and (2) the existential and universal quantifiers “(∃x)” (which may be read: “For at least one individual, call it x, it is true that”) and “(∀x)” (“For each individual, call it x, it is true that”). Furthermore, (3) the concept of identity (expressed by =) and (4) some notion of predication belong to logic. When the logical constants in (1) alone are studied, the field is called propositional calculus. When (1), (2), and (4) are considered, the field is first-order predicate calculus. If the absence of (3) is stressed, the epithet “without identity” is added. Logic is fundamental to the fields of philosophy and mathematics. See also deontic logic, modal logic.
Impure form of carbon, obtained as a residue when material containing carbon is partially burned or heated with limited access to air. Coke, carbon black, and soot are forms of charcoal; other forms are named for their source material, such as wood, blood, or bone. Largely replaced by coke in blast furnaces and by natural gas as a raw material, charcoal is still used to make black gunpowder and in case-hardening metals. Activated charcoal is a finely powdered or highly porous form whose surface area is hundreds or thousands of square meters per gram. It has many uses as an adsorbent (see adsorption), including for poison treatment, and as a catalyst or catalyst carrier.
Horizontal and vertical circulation system of ocean waters, produced by gravity, wind friction, and water density variation. Coriolis forces cause ocean currents to move clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and deflect them about 45° from the wind direction. This movement creates distinctive currents called gyres. Major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream～North Atlantic～Norway Current in the Atlantic Ocean, the Peru (Humboldt) Current off South America, and the western Australia Current.
Understanding Water Budgets and Balances
What is a water budget? A water budget reflects the relationship between input and output of water through a region. The water balance graph shows precipitation and potential evapotranspiration both as line graphs. Thus we have a direct comparison of supply of water and the natural demand for water. It is possible to identify the periods when there is plenty of precipitation and when there is not enough.
The following terms will be used in the questions that follow:
Potential Evapotranspiration (PE): All the water that could enter the air from plants and evaporation if present.
Precipitation (P): All moisture from the atmosphere, rain, snow, hail and sleet.
Surplus: Water above what is lost naturally from the soil (when P is greater than PE)
Deficit: Water that would be lost above what is in the soil if it were present (when P is less than PE)
Following is a data table of with monthly and total compares of Precipitation and Potential Evapotranspiration for SilverLake, west and north of Nederland, and Boulder. The data is a composite of measurements.
SilverLake
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
T
Precip
1.84
2.29
3.15
3.37
3.16
2.57
2.73
2.4
1.65
1.7
1.68
1.47
28.01
PE
0
0
0
0
0.93
3.66
4.71
3.93
2.24
0
0
0
15.47
Boulder
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
T
Precip
0.66
0.78
1.66
2.45
3.18
2.06
1.67
1.45
1.54
1.34
1.04
0.7
18.53
PE
0
0
0
2.55
4.99
8.15
4.06
1.45
1.3
1.26
0.53
0
24.29
Questions:
1. During what months does Boulder have a water surplus? A water deficit? During what months does SilverLake have a water surplus? A water deficit?
2. Which place has an overall deficit for the year? Which place has an overall surplus for the year? Can you explain why?
3. During what month is Boulder's water deficit the smallest? During what month is Boulder's water deficit the largest? During what month is Boulder's water surplus the smallest? During what month is Boulder's water surplus the largest? During what month does Boulder's water deficit peak? Give two reasons why the rise is so dramatic
4. When does SilverLake not have any PE? Explain why.
5. List the three places that Boulder gets its water from.
6. Boulder is downstream from SilverLake. What would you expect to happen if the SilverLake area had a very large surplus? When would you experience the most problems connected with the surplus and why? What could planners do to minimize these problems.
Additional activities:
Chart a water balance chart showing potential evaptranspiration (PE) and precipitation for (P) . You can use data from the Western Regional Climate Center which has a summary of Climate Data in Colorado and numerous other resources on precipitation and climate. Here are the addresses for several stations in the Boulder area:
Also check out the National Weather Service's summary of hydrology in the Denver area which includes information from the Urban Drainage and Flood Control District (UDFCD) monitoring network. Part of the UDFCD's flood warning system includes the Alert system, with real time data from their network of stations. They have excellent rainfall maps that you can create on demand of the region including some of the Boulder area.
To find out more about the complexities of evapo-transpiration, visit the Colorado ET Network .
The Earth's Water Budget
storage and fluxes
Water covers 70% of the earth's surface, but it is difficult to comprehend the total amount of water when we only see a small portion of it. The following diagram displays the volumes of water contained on land, in oceans, and in the atmosphere. Arrows indicate the annual exchange of water between these storages.
The oceans contain 97.5% of the earth's water, land 2.4%, and the atmosphere holds less than .001%, which may seem surprising because water plays such an important role in weather. The annual precipitation for the earth is more than 30 times the atmosphere's total capacity to hold water. This fact indicates the rapid recycling of water that must occur between the earth's surface and the atmosphere.
To visualize the amount of water contained in these storages, imagine that the entire amount of the earth's annual precipitation fell upon the state Texas. If this was to occur, every square inch of that state would be under 1,841 feet, or 0.3 miles of water! Also, there is enough water in the oceans to fill a five-mile deep container having a base of 7,600 miles on each side.
The Last 2,000 Years
Possible Role of Climate in the Collapse of the Classic Maya Civilization Hodell, D.A., Curtis, J.H., and Brenner, M. Complete Scientific Reference
Summary: Originating in the YucatanPeninsula, the ancient Maya civilization occupied a vast area of Mesoamerica between the time period of 2600 BC and 1200 AD. Constructing thousands of architectural structures and developing sophisticated concepts surrounding the disciplines of astronomy and mathematics, the Maya civilization rose to a cultural florescence between the years of 600 to 800 AD. Although this prosperity reigned for nearly two centuries, the Maya civilization met with misfortune between the years of 800 and 900 AD.
During this time period, known by archaeologists as the Classic Collapse of the Maya civilization, many southern cities were abandoned and most cultural activities ceased. The Maya, never able to regain their cultural or geographical prominence, were assimilated into other Mesoamerican civilizations until the time of the Spanish Conquest in 1530 AD.
The cause of the collapse of the Classic Maya civilization represents one of the great archaeological mysteries of our time, and has been debated by scholars for nearly a century. Some scientists theorize that the paleoclimate of the region was not only different than the present day climate, but the natural climate variability of the past could have included a period of intense drought that occurred in conjunction with the Classic Maya Collapse.
Scientists reconstructed the past climate of the Maya civilization by studying lake sediment cores in the YucatanPeninsula. In closed basin lakes, the ratio of 18O to 16O in lake water is controlled mainly by the balance between evaporation and precipitation. The 18O to 16O ratio of lake water is recorded by aquatic organisms, such as gastropods and ostracods that precipitate shells of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Scientists can measure the 18O to 16O ratio in fossil shells in sediment cores to reconstruct changes in evaporation/precipitation through time, thus inferring climate change.
The oxygen isotope data measured on ostracods have been converted from radiocarbon years to calendar years and compared to Mayan cultural periods. (Graphed image at right; for larger viewing image, click here or on image.) Superimposed upon the mean changes in the record are distinct peaks that represent arid climate conditions. These peaks occur at 585 AD, 862 AD, 986 AD, 1051 AD and 1391 AD. Error is approximately +/-50 years. The first peak at 585 AD coincides with the early/late Classic boundary. This boundary is associated with the "Maya Hiatus", which lasted between 530 and 630 AD. The Maya Hiatus was marked by a sharp decline in monument carving, abandonment in some areas and social upheaval. This event may have been drought-related. During the next 200 years from 600 to 800 AD, the late Classic Maya flourished and reached their cultural and artistic apex. The next peak in 18O/16O occurs at 862 AD and coincides with the collapse of Classic Maya civilization between 800 and 900 AD. The earliest Postclassic Period was also relatively dry between 986 and 1051 AD. At about 1000 AD, mean oxygen isotope values decrease indicating a return to more humid conditions. Although a Postclassic resurgence occurred in the northern Yucatan, city-states in the southern lowlands remained sparsely occupied.
These findings support a rather strong correlation between times of drought and major cultural discontinuities in Classic Maya civilization.
Climate and the Collapse of Maya Civilization
All in the Timing
Scholars generally agree that the terminal Classic collapse occurred first in the southern and central Yucatán lowlands and that many areas of the northern lowlands underwent their own decline a century or more later. This pattern of abandonment is opposite to what one might expect based on the modern pattern of rainfall, which diminishes markedly from south to north. Some Mayanists have pointed to this incongruity as evidence against drought having played a significant role. However, an additional factor that must be considered is the availability and access to natural water sources, which could have sustained the population during extended periods of drought.
During the peak of Maya civilization, as now, an important source of fresh water for human activities was from the natural underground aquifer. This aquifer is generally more accessible in the northern end of the peninsula, where the Maya were able to reach the water table at various sinkholes (places where the roof of an underground cavern had collapsed) or by digging wells. However, as one moves to the south, the landscape rises in elevation, and the depth to the water table increases, making direct access to groundwater unfeasible, at least for the Classic Maya with the technology of their time. Thus the more southern settlements, which were totally dependent on rainfall and reservoirs for their water needs, were more likely to be susceptible to the effects of prolonged drought than were cities with direct access to subsurface sources. This critical difference helps explain why drought could have caused greater problems in the normally wetter south.
Although there is general agreement that the abandonment of major population centers began first in the south and then spread to the north, Gill proposed a more controversial tripartite pattern of collapse. Based on an analysis of the last recorded dates carved into stone monuments known as stelae at major Maya sites. Gill argued that there were, in fact, three phases of drought-related collapse between about 760 and 910 A.D., with a distinct regional progression.
The first phase, according to Gill, occurred between 760 and 810. The second phase was largely over by about 860. The third and final phase terminated around 910. Noting a similarity between the end dates of these three phases and the timing of especially severe cold spells in Europe (as evidenced in Swedish tree-ring records), Gill speculated that the abandonments occurred rather abruptly at the end of each phase, that they were primarily the result of droughts and that these droughts were linked to the cold conditions at higher latitudes.
Gill's model of three phases of collapse, and especially the archaeological basis for their proposed timing, has been the subject of much debate. There is considerable disagreement, for example, over the interpretation of the last dated inscriptions on stelae as accurate records of city abandonment. Furthermore, Gill considered only the largest Maya sites in his original analysis. So there is certainly some room for doubt. Nevertheless, the drought events we inferred from the CariacoBasin record match Gill's three phases of abandonment remarkably well.
The onset of Gill's first phase at about 760 A.D. is clearly marked in the Cariaco record by an abrupt decrease in inferred rainfall. Over the subsequent 40 years or so, there appears to have been a slight long-term drying trend. This period then culminated in roughly a decade or more of severe drought, which, within the limits of our chronology, agrees well with the end of Gill's first phase. Societal collapse at this time was limited to the western lowlands, a region with little accessible groundwater and where the inhabitants depended almost entirely on rainfall to satisfy their needs.
The end of Gill's second phase of collapse is also marked in the Cariaco Basin record by a distinct interval of low titanium concentrations, suggesting an unusually severe drought that lasted for three or four years. City abandonment during this phase of collapse was largely restricted to the southeastern portion of the lowlands, a region where freshwater lagoons may have provided a source of water up to that point.
According to Gill, the third and final phase of collapse occurred at about 910 A.D., affecting population centers in the central and northern lowlands. And low titanium values in the Cariaco Basin sediments indicate yet another coincident period of drought, one that lasted for five or six years.
Although the match between Gill's drought model and our findings is quite good, we accept that no single cause is likely to explain a phenomenon as complex as the Maya decline. In his recent book Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Jared Diamond argues that a confluence of factors may have combined to doom the Maya. These include an expanding population that was operating at or near the limits of available resources, environmental degradation in the form of deforestation and hillside erosion, increased internal warfare and a leadership focused on short-term concerns. (Sound familiar?) Nevertheless, Diamond posits that climate change, in the form of droughts, may have helped bring things to a head, triggering a series of events that destabilized Maya society.
Some archaeologists have pointed out that the control of water reserves provided a centralized source of political authority for the ruling Maya elites. Periods of drought might then have undermined the institution of Maya rulership when existing technologies and rituals failed to provide sufficient water. Large population centers dependent on this control were abandoned and people moved sequentially eastward and then northward during the successive droughts to find more stable sources of water. However, unlike what transpired during previous intervals of too little rainfall, which the Maya must certainly have weathered before, the landscape during the final stages of collapse was at carrying capacity (because of the growth of Maya population during wetter times), and migration to areas less affected by drought was no longer possible. In short, they ran out of options.
Poison secreted by an animal, produced by specialized glands often associated with spines, teeth, or stings. It may be primarily for paralyzing or killing prey or may be purely defensive. Some venoms also function as digestive fluids. Their effects can range from localized skin inflammation to almost immediate death; they include nervous-system excitation (cramps, vomiting, convulsions) or depression (paralysis, respiratory or cardiac depression or arrest), hemorrhage, red-blood-cell breakdown, circulatory collapse, and allergic reactions (including hives and inflammation). Many major groups of animals contain venomous species: snakes (cobras, mambas, vipers, pit vipers); fish (stingrays, spiny sharks, certain catfish, puffers); lizards (Gila monsters, beaded lizards); scorpions; spiders (black widow spiders, brown recluse spiders); social insects (bees, wasps, some ants); and marine invertebrates (sea anemones, fire corals, jellyfish, sea urchins). See also antidote.
In logic, a type of inference distinguished by the fact that if the premises of the inference are all true, then the conclusion necessarily follows and hence is also true. This feature distinguishes deduction from induction. The above definition of deduction is hypothetical and speaks only about the formal relationship between the premises and the conclusion of a deduction; it does not imply that all the premises or the conclusion of any deduction must in fact be true. Thus, the following inference is deductive, even though the second premise and the conclusion are untrue: “No odd natural number is divisible without remainder by 2; 4 is an odd natural number; therefore, 4 is not divisible without remainder by 2.”
生物学上指将有机体从一般到特殊分成不同的层次组，以反映演化和通常的形态关联，依次为界、门、纲、目、科、属、种。例如，黑顶山雀是一种有着脊柱神经索（脊索动物门）和羽毛（鸟纲）的动物（界：动物类），栖息（雀形目），喙小且短（山雀科），声音听起来像“chik-a-dee”（山雀属），黑头（atricapillus种）。大多数权威承认物种领域：原核生物、原生生物、真菌、植物和动物。18世纪中期林奈建立了用拉丁文作属名和种名给生物命名的方案；他的分类工作被后来的生物学家广泛的修改。 In biology, the classification of organisms into a hierarchy of groupings, from the general to the particular, that reflect evolutionary and usually morphological relationships: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. The black-capped chickadee, for example, is an animal (kingdom Animalia) with a dorsal nerve cord (phylum Chordata) and feathers (class Aves: birds) that perches (order Passeriformes: perching birds) and is small with a short bill (family Paridae), a song that sounds like “chik-a-dee” (genus Parus), and a black-capped head (species atricapillus). Most authorities recognize five kingdoms: monerans (prokaryotes), protists, fungi (see fungus), plants, and animals. Carolus Linnaeus established the scheme of using Latin generic and specific names in the mid-18th century; his work was extensively revised by later biologists.
流沙，一种静止状态的，比较潮湿的细沙。一旦受到外力震动，就会变得流质化，因此又名流沙，无法承载重物。形成的原因可能是沙子地下有水流经过，沙子成饱和状态（saturated or supersaturated），一旦又外压力，就由坚硬状态转变成流动状态。（Quicksand is loose, water-logged sand which yields easily to weight or pressure. This can occur when water is flowing from a spring beneath the surface, which keeps the sand saturated or supersaturated. The undisturbed sand often is, or appears, solid until some shock or sudden increase in pressure, such as a person stepping on it, causes it to liquify and loose its cohesion.）
The flowchart for this theory of memory indicates that all incoming information first passes through Sensory Memory (SM) before it enters ShortTerm Memory (STM). There it can be maintained by rehearsal and either successfully encoded for storage in LongTerm Memory (LTM) or forgotten. In retrieval, the information passes from LTM back to STM, where it enters our consciousness. A summary of the characteristics of each stage of memory is below.
Physiological process for locating distant or invisible objects (such as prey) by emitting sound waves that are reflected back to the emitter by the objects. Echolocation is used by an animal to orient itself, avoid obstacles, find food, and interact socially. Most bats employ echolocation, as do most, if not all, toothed whales (but apparently no baleen whales), a few shrews, and two kinds of birds (oilbirds and certain cave swiftlets). Echolocation pulses consist of short bursts of sound at frequencies ranging from about 1,000 Hz in birds to at least 200,000 Hz in whales. Bats use frequencies from about 30,000 to about 120,000 Hz.
作文：87) Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? A person’s childhood years (the time from birth to twelve years of age) are the most important years of a person’s life. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer. 最近jj没有出现这道，但是和孩子该不该花很多时间去玩，孩子应该花时间去玩还是送到学校去学习的题目很相似的
听力： 短对话，基本上都是什么天气不错，但是我有paper要做之类的。有一个是说xx was under the weather.男的说，我让她去医院了，现在她看起来像另外一个人。答案应该是xx is better now. 分数不高，其他就不误导了。我一向短对话做的差。
Art movement, chiefly of painters, that dominated the European and American art market in the early to mid-1980s. It was controversial both in the quality of its production and in the highly commercialized aspects of its presentation. Its practitioners, including Julian Schnabel and Anselm Kiefer, returned to portraying the human body and other recognizable objects, in reaction to the highly intellectualized abstract art of the 1970s. Their art was characterized by a tense yet playful presentation of objects in a primitivist manner, painted in vivid color harmonies, conveying inner tension and alienation. See also Expressionism.
<SCRIPT language=JavaScript><br><br> <!--<br> function showbigimages(ImgPath){<br> //alert(ImgPath);<br> //window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars =yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=795,height=575,top=0,left=0;");<br> window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars=yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizable=yes");<br> }<br> function ShowExp(){<br> window.open("ShowExp.htm","延伸閱讀分類說明","scrollbars =no,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=500,height=400,top=100,left=100;"); <br> }<br> --><br> </SCRIPT><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>一種藝術風格，其中藝術家不描繪客觀事實，而描繪事物所致的主觀感情。這個目標藉著形體的扭曲和誇張以及生動或狂暴的色彩應用而達成。其根源見於<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=23824" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>梵谷</FONT></A>（Vincent van Gogh）、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=16029" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>孟克</FONT></A>（Edvard Munch）、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=7194" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>恩索爾</FONT></A>等人的作品。1905年該運動隨著稱為「<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=3842" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>橋社</FONT></A>」（Die Br(M&v1)cke）的一群德國藝術家而興起，他們的作品影響了<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=19950" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>魯奧</FONT></A>（Georges Rouault）、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=21673" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>蘇蒂恩</FONT></A>（Chaim Soutine）、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=2647" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>貝克曼</FONT></A>（Max Beckmann）、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=13002" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>珂勒惠支</FONT></A>（Kathe Kollwitz）、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=2433" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>巴爾拉赫</FONT></A>（Ernst Barlach）等藝術家。稱為「<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=3138" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>藍騎士</FONT></A>」（Der Blaue Reiter）的一群藝術家也被視為表現主義者。表現主義是第一次世界大戰後德國的主要藝術風格，戰後的表現主義者包括<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=10176" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>格羅茨</FONT></A>（George Grosz）和<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=7109" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>迪克斯</FONT></A>（Otto Dix）。其感情品質後來被20世紀其他藝術運動採用。亦請參閱<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=87" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>Abstract Expressionism</FONT></A>。 <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>Artistic style in which the artist depicts not objective reality but the subjective emotions that objects or events arouse. This aim is accomplished through distortion and exaggeration of shape and the vivid or violent application of color. Its roots are found in the works of Vincent van Gogh, Edvard Munch, and James Ensor. In 1905 the movement took hold with a group of German artists known as Die Brücke; their works influenced such artists as Georges Rouault, Chaim Soutine, Max Beckmann, Kathe Kollwitz, and Ernst Barlach. The group of artists known as Der Blaue Reiter were also considered Expressionists. Expressionism was the dominant style in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Germany</st1:place></st1:country-region> after World War I; postwar Expressionists included George Grosz and Otto Dix. Its emotional qualities have been adopted by other 20th-century art movements. See also Abstract Expressionism<o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=3></FONT></o:p></P><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="99%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>紫外輻射</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>ultraviolet radiation</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD width="20%"><br /><P>知識分類：<o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD><br /><P><a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=005" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>自然科學篇</FONT></A>＞<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=005&keyWord=201&subkeyword=物理%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>物理 </FONT></A><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE><br /><P><o:p><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀人氣： 11 次<o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape></P><br /><FORM><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></FORM></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀語言： <SELECT> <OPTION value=chi>中<OPTION value=eng>英<OPTION value=ce selected>中英</OPTION></SELECT><INPUT><INPUT></P><br /><P><br />[code]<SCRIPT language=JavaScript><br><br> <!--<br> function showbigimages(ImgPath){<br> //alert(ImgPath);<br> //window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars =yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=795,height=575,top=0,left=0;");<br> window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars=yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizable=yes");<br> }<br> function ShowExp(){<br> window.open("ShowExp.htm","延伸閱讀分類說明","scrollbars =no,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=500,height=400,top=100,left=100;"); <br> }<br> --><br> </SCRIPT><br /><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>位於<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=8017" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>電磁波譜</FONT></A>中靠近短波或可見光區之短波長端（紫端）外側的電磁波。由於肉眼看不到，故常稱為黑光；但當它投射於某些物表時，可使之發出螢光，或放出可見光。紫外輻射可從高熱表面（例如太陽）；亦可產生自氣體放電管中的原子激發。紫外輻射對人體的直接作用多僅局限於皮膚表面，包括刺激製造維生素D、灼傷、曬黑、老化以及癌等病變。紫外輻射也用於治療新生兒的黃疸病，細菌設備和製造人造光。 <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extending from the violet end of the visible light region to the X-ray region. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is divided into three bands: UVA (also called black light), UVB (responsible for the best-known effects on organisms), and UVC (which does not reach the earth's surface). Most UV rays from the sun are absorbed by the earth's ozone layer. UV has low penetrating power, so its effects on humans are limited to the skin. These effects include stimulation of production of vitamin D, sunburn, suntan, aging signs, and carcinogenic changes. UV radiation is also used to treat jaundice in newborns, to sterilize equipment, and to produce artificial light. <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=3></FONT></o:p></P><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="99%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>紫外天文學</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>ultraviolet astronomy</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD width="20%"><br /><P>知識分類：<o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD><br /><P><a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=005" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>自然科學篇</FONT></A>＞<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=005&keyWord=203&subkeyword=天文%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>天文 </FONT></A><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE><br /><P><o:p><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀人氣： 6 次<o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape></P><br /><FORM><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></FORM></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀語言： <SELECT> <OPTION value=chi>中<OPTION value=eng>英<OPTION value=ce selected>中英</OPTION></SELECT><INPUT><INPUT></P><br /><P><br /><SCRIPT language=JavaScript><br> <!--<br> function showbigimages(ImgPath){<br> //alert(ImgPath);<br> //window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars =yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=795,height=575,top=0,left=0;");<br> window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars=yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizable=yes");<br> }<br> function ShowExp(){<br> window.open("ShowExp.htm","延伸閱讀分類說明","scrollbars =no,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=500,height=400,top=100,left=100;"); <br> }<br> --><br> </SCRIPT><br /><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>研究天體紫外光譜的一個天文學分支學科。可以提供有關星際物質、太陽以及某些其他天體（例如白矮星）的化學豐度和物理過程等方面，取得許多重要訊息。由於能夠攜帶儀器飛到吸收掉大部分來自宇宙輻射源的紫外波段電磁輻射的地球大氣之上的火箭的出現，使得紫外天文學變得可行。從1960年代初起，將載有紫外高反射率鍍膜的光學望遠鏡的無人衛星天文台發射送入環地球軌道。如哈伯太空望遠鏡收集了暗天體（如星雲和疏鬆星團）的紫外波長的資料。 <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>Study of the ultraviolet (UV) spectra of astronomical objects. It has yielded much information about chemical abundances and processes in interstellar matter, the sun, and certain other stellar objects, such as white dwarf stars. UV astronomy became feasible once rockets could carry instruments above earth's atmosphere, which absorbs most electromagnetic radiation of UV wavelengths. Since the early 1960s, several unmanned satellite observatories carrying UV telescopes, including the Hubble Space Telescope, have collected UV-wavelength data on objects such as comets, quasars, nebulae, and distant star clusters. See also spectrum. <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=3></FONT></o:p></P><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="99%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>X</B><B>射線</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>X ray</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD width="20%"><br /><P>知識分類：<o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD><br /><P><a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=005" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>自然科學篇</FONT></A>＞<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=005&keyWord=201&subkeyword=物理%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>物理 </FONT></A><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE><br /><P><o:p><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀人氣： 25 次<o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape></P><br /><FORM><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></FORM></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀語言： <SELECT> <OPTION value=chi>中<OPTION value=eng>英<OPTION value=ce selected>中英</OPTION></SELECT><INPUT><INPUT></P><br /><P><br /><SCRIPT language=JavaScript><br> <!--<br> function showbigimages(ImgPath){<br> //alert(ImgPath);<br> //window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars =yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=795,height=575,top=0,left=0;");<br> window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars=yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizable=yes");<br> }<br> function ShowExp(){<br> window.open("ShowExp.htm","延伸閱讀分類說明","scrollbars =no,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=500,height=400,top=100,left=100;"); <br> }<br> --><br> </SCRIPT><br /><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width=482 colSpan=3><br /><P align=center><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width=104><br /><P align=center><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width=377><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width=10><br /><P align=center><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width=104><br /><P align=center><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width=377><br /><P><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT>X射線管。電流加熱燈絲將電子從陰極激發出去。陰極和陽極之間的高電壓差造成電子往陽極加速，陽極轉動避免靶過熱。當電子打擊陽極的靶區，放出X射線。<br><FONT face="Times New Roman"> </FONT><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width=10><br /><P align=center><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width=104 rowSpan=2><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width=377><br /><P><FONT face="Times New Roman"><o:p></o:p></FONT></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width=10><br /><P align=center><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width=377><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width=10><br /><P align=center><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>波長極短的一種<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=8016" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>電磁輻射</FONT></A>，由帶電粒子減速或原子內電子躍遷產生。X射線的<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=24424" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>波長</FONT></A>範圍為從約0.05埃到數百埃。跟其他類型的電磁輻射（γ射線、紫外輻射、可見光、紅外輻射和無線電波）一樣，X射線在真空中有同樣的速度，並顯示出與波的本性相聯繫的現象，如干涉、衍射和偏振。X射線是<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=19878" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>倫琴</FONT></A>於1895年發現的X射線的一般現象。X射線最早的應用之一是在醫學中用於診斷和治療。包括骨折、身體中異物、齲洞以及諸如癌等疾病的檢查，來制止惡性腫瘤的擴散。在工業上，X射線照相可用於無損檢測鑄件中不能直接觀察到的裂痕，以及測量材料的厚度。 <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>Electromagnetic radiation of extremely short wavelength produced by the deceleration of charged particles or the transitions of electrons in atoms. X rays travel at the speed of light and exhibit phenomena associated with waves, but experiments indicate that they can also behave like particles (see wave-particle duality). On the electromagnetic spectrum, they lie between gamma rays and ultraviolet radiation. They were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, who named them X rays for their unknown nature. They are used in medicine to diagnose bone fractures, dental cavities, and cancer; to locate foreign objects in the body; and to stop the spread of malignant tumors. In industry, they are used to analyze and detect flaws in structures. <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>集體治療</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>group therapy</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD width="20%"><br /><P>知識分類：<o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD><br /><P><a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=008" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>人類社會篇</FONT></A>＞<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=008&keyWord=309&subkeyword=心理%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>心理 </FONT></A><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE><br /><P><o:p><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀人氣： 7 次<o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape></P><br /><FORM><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></FORM></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀語言： <SELECT> <OPTION value=chi>中<OPTION value=eng>英<OPTION value=ce selected>中英</OPTION></SELECT><INPUT><INPUT></P><br /><P><br /><SCRIPT language=JavaScript><br> <!--<br> function showbigimages(ImgPath){<br> //alert(ImgPath);<br> //window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars =yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=795,height=575,top=0,left=0;");<br> window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars=yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizable=yes");<br> }<br> function ShowExp(){<br> window.open("ShowExp.htm","延伸閱讀分類說明","scrollbars =no,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=500,height=400,top=100,left=100;"); <br> }<br> --><br> </SCRIPT><br /><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P><a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=19023" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>心理治療</FONT></A>的一種形式，通常在一名治療者或諮商者在場的情況下，讓一些病人或案主討論他們的個人問題。在集體治療的一種手段中，主要目的是培養一種團體的歸屬感，以喚起成員對孤立的意識、士氣和戰鬥感；<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=816" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>嗜酒者互戒協會</FONT></A>即是一個傑出的範例。其他主要手段致力於促進自由討論和不受抑制的自我表白；藉著互相檢驗生活中他們對人們（包括其他成員）的反應，幫助成員瞭解自身並達到比較成功的行為。 <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><br /><P>Form of psychotherapy in which several patients or clients discuss their personal problems, usually in the presence of a therapist or counselor. In one approach to group therapy, the chief aim is to raise members' awareness and morale and combat feelings of isolation by cultivating a sense of belonging to the group; an outstanding example is Alcoholics Anonymous. The other principal approach strives to foster free discussion and uninhibited self-revelation; members are helped to self-understanding and more successful behavior through mutual examination of their reactions to people in their lives, including one another. <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=3></FONT></o:p></P><br /><H2><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Laughs: Rhythmic Bursts of Social Glue</FONT></H2><br /><H5><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">By NATALIE ANGIER</FONT></H5><br /><P><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=3>Here is a sampling of knee slappers to jump-start your day: </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>"Got to go now!" </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>"I see your point." </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>"It must be nice." </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>"Look! It's Andre." </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>Hey, wait a minute. Where are the guffaws, the chuckles, at the very least a polite titter or two? Get me laughtrack! Doesn't this deadbeat crowd know that such lines are genuine howlers, field-tested fomenters of laughter among ordinary groups of people in ordinary social settings? </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>We're not talking Aristophanes here, or even Phyllis Diller. We're talking the sort of laughter that we give and receive every day while strolling with friends in the park, or having lunch in the company cafeteria, or chatting over the telephone. The sort of social laughter that punctuates casual conversations so regularly and unremarkably that we never think about or notice it -- but that we would surely, sorely miss if it were gone. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>One person who has thought about and noticed laughter in great detail is Dr. Robert R. Provine, a professor of neurobiology and psychology at the University of Maryland Baltimore County. Dr. Provine has become a professional laugh-tracker, if you will, an anthropologist of our amusement, asking the deliciously obvious questions that science has not deigned to consider before. He has analyzed what, physically, a laugh is, what its vocal signature looks like and how it differs from the auditory shape of a spoken word or a cry or any other human utterance. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>He has asked when people laugh and why, what sort of comments elicit laughter, whether women laugh more than men, whether a person laughs more while speaking or while listening. He has studied the rules of laughter: when in a conversation a laugh will occur, and when, for one reason or another, the brain decides it is taboo. He has compared human laughter to the breathy, panting vocalizations that chimpanzees make while they are being chased or tickled, and that any primatologist or caretaker will firmly describe as chimpanzee laughter. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>Dr. Provine has eavesdropped on 1,200 bouts of laughter among people in malls and other public places, noting down the comments that preceded each laugh and compiling a list of what he calls his "greatest hits" of laugh generators, which include witless-isms like those quoted above. In so doing he has made a discovery at once startling and perfectly sensible: most of what we laugh at in life is not particularly funny or clever but merely the stuff of social banter, the glue that binds a group together. Even the comparatively humorous laugh-getters are not exactly up to Seinfeld, lines like, "She's got a sex disorder: she doesn't like sex;" or "You don't have to drink. Just buy us drinks." It is probably a good thing that our laugh-meters are set so low, because very few of us are natural wits, and those that are often get into bad moods and refuse to say a single clever thing for entire evenings at a time. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>Dr. Provine, a tall man with a well-groomed academic-issue beard who in profile looks faintly like the actor Fernando Rey, is neither clownish nor severe, somehow remaining animated about his subject without becoming silly. He can laugh loudly on command to demonstrate his points, which is something many people refuse to do. In videos, when Dr. Provine is shown approaching strangers on the Baltimore waterfront, telling them he is studying laughter and asking them to laugh for him. Usually, people give sidelong glances to their companions, grin, fuss with their hair, and as he persists, they grow annoyed. "I can't laugh on command," they complain. "Tell me a joke first." </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>To Dr. Provine, that difficulty reveals something important about the nature of laughter. We can smile on command, albeit stiffly, and we can certainly talk on command, but laughter has an essential spontaneous element to it. It is a vocalization of a mood state, rather than a cognitive act, and as such it is difficult to fake, just as it is hard to force out tears. Those who are good at laughing on cue, said Dr. Provine, often have stage experience. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Dr. Provine summarizes much of his recent research in the current issue of American Scientist, and he recently presented results at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience in <st1:City><st1:place>San Diego</st1:place></st1:City>. His work departs sharply from the well-mined territory of humor analysis, in which scholars gather at conferences to discuss the ontology of Woody Allen or Monty Python and leave one with a distinct taste of sawdust in the mouth. Dr. Provine is not interested in formal comic material, or why some like Lenny Bruce and others Red Skelton, but in laughter as a universal social act. </FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>"His work is extremely interesting, insightful," said Dr. William F. Fry, a psychiatrist at the Stanford University School of Medicine. "He's doing the sort of things that should have been done 300 years ago." Dr. Fry is no joke himself, having studied the aerobic, physical and emotional benefits that accrue when a person laughs. One hundred laughs, he discovered, is equivalent to 10 minutes spent rowing. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>Lest it appear that Dr. Provine is in the business of amusing himself and making strangers uncomfortable, he elaborates on the many quite serious questions that the study of laughter addresses. Laughter gives you a foothold on the neurobiology of behavior, he said. "It is species-typical, everybody does it, and it is simple in structure, which gives you powerful leverage on the neurology behind it," he said. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>"Looking at a common human behavior that is socially interesting gives us the opportunity to go back and forth between the neural circuitry and a higher ssocial act," he said. Dr. Provine compares studying a simple system like laughter for clues to more complex types of human behavior to biologists' use of a simple organism like yeast or nematodes for delving into the thicket of genetics or brain development. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>He points out that linguists and scientists who study speech are always searching for the deep underlying structure to language, those phonemes that might be recognized as language units by everybody, regardless of whether they are French, Chinese or New Guinean. But finding the common currency of language has proved quite difficult. "If you're interested in the mechanisms of speech, wouldn't it be useful to look at a vocalization that all individuals produce in the same way, such as laughter?" he asks rhetorically. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>Laughter also has the useful property of being contagious, he said. When you hear laughter, you tend to start laughing yourself -- hence the logic behind the sitcom's ubiquitous laugh-track. And it is easy to assess whether the brain's circuitry for recognizing laughter has been activated, Dr. Provine said. "You don't need to use electrodes, or wait for clinical cases of brain lesions," to study laughter recognition, he said. All you have to do is see if the person laughs on hearing laughter. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>The infectiousness of laughter also makes it a particularly interesting social activity to explore. Few behaviors, short of shouting "Fire" in a movie theater, can have such a dramatic, swelling impact on group behavior as can the burst of a merry chime of laughter. Indeed, Dr. Provine came to laughter research after studying another highly contagious human behavior: yawning. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Before he could hope to get at any neural circuitry, Dr. Provine first had to do the basics, starting with what a laugh looks like. He brought recorded samples of human laughter to the sound analysis laboratory at the National Zoo in <st1:State><st1:place>Washington</st1:place></st1:State>, where the usual subjects of research are bird songs and monkey screams. There he and colleagues generated laugh waveforms and laugh frequency spectrums. They determined that the average laugh consisted of short bursts of vowel-based notes -- haha or hehe -- each note lasting about 75 milliseconds and separated by rests of 210 milliseconds. Whether a person laughs with a shy giggle, a joyous musical peal, or a braying hee-haw, "the key is the burst of vowel-like sounds produced in a regular rhythmic pattern," he said. </FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>A typical laugh also has a decrescendo structure, starting strong and ending soft. A laugh played backward, going from low to high bursts, sounds slightly strange, almost frightening, and yet it is still clearly recognizable as a laugh, just as a birdsong played backward would be; the same cannot be said for a human conversation played backwards. "Laughter has more in common with animal calls than with what we think of as modern speech," Dr. Provine said. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>Dr. Provine and his students also began gathering hundreds of episodes of everyday laughter. They were startled by the ordinariness of the comments that would elicit laughter. Equally surprising was how often people laughed at their own statements. The standard image of the comedian is the deadpan performer who hardly grins while the audience members convulse in laughter. But the average speaker chattering away laughs 46 percent more frequently than do those listening to the spiel. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>There proved to be wide variations based on sex in the ratio of speaker-to-listener laughter. A man talking to a male listener laughs only </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>sslightly more than his companion will in response. If a woman is talking to a woman, she laughs considerably more than does her audience. By contrast, a male speaker with a female hanging on his words laughs 7 percent less often than does his appreciative hearer. And the biggest discrepancy of all is found when a woman speaks to a man, in which case she laughs 127 percent more than her male associate, who perhaps is otherwise occupied with planning a witty rejoinder. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>Speakers and listeners alike abide by rules while laughing. Laughter almost never intrudes upon the phrase structure of speech. It never interrupts a thought. Instead, it occurs as a kind of punctuation, to reflect natural pauses in speech. This is true for listeners as well as the talkers: they do not laugh in the middle of a speaker's phrase, Dr. Provine said. And in fact to do so may be evidence of psychological abnormality; a crazy person may not wait for you to finish speaking before interrupting with a booming HA! </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>The lawfulness of the relationship between laughter and speech, said Dr. Provine, indicates a segregation of brain processes devoted to one or the other. "It suggests that you have mutually exclusive but interacting vocal processes," he said. "And it seems speech is dominant over laughter, because laughter does not intrude on speech." </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>What, then, is the purpose of all this lawfully punctuating chuckling? Laughter is, above all, a social act, Dr. Provine said. You are far more likely to talk to yourself while alone than laugh to yourself (unless you are watching television or reading, in which case you are engaged vicariously in a social event). Dr. Provine sees laughter as a within-group modulator, something designed to influence the tenor of an assemblage, to synchronize mood and possibly subsequent actions. He compares laughter to the barking of dogs, which coordinates disparate elements into a more or less like-minded team. Joyous laughter can help solidify friendships and pull people into the fold. </FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face="宋体, MS Song" size=3>As with any group behavior, though, laughter has its menacing streak. The flip side of mirthful laughter may not be tears, but jeering, malicious laughter, used not to include people in one's group, but to exclude the laughable misfit. To make his point about the downside of laughter, and how it can turn deadly, Dr. Provine shows a clip from the movie "Goodfellas," a scene in which the volatile Joe Pesci character laughs together with his fellow thugs before smashing a bottle of alcohol into a poor intruder's face. </FONT></P><br /><DIV><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Despots historically have feared the power of laughter; comedians during the Nazi era in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Germany</st1:place></st1:country-region>, for example, were kept on the Gestapo's shortest leash. "Fashions on laughter change, but one thing that stays the same is, you can't laugh at people in power," Dr. Provine said. The sanction holds for the personal as well as the political. Laugh at your boss, and you may be the recipient of that practical joke known as the little pink slip. </FONT></FONT></P></DIV><br /><P><STRONG><FONT color=#6699ff>The Science of Laughter</FONT></STRONG> <br><br>By: <a href="mailto:letters@psychologytoday.com" target="_blank" ><B><FONT color=#136b9c>Robert Provine</FONT></B></A><br>Summary: Far from mere reactions to jokes, hoots and hollers are serious business: They're innate -- and important -- social tools. <br><br><o:p></o:p></P><br /><FORM><br /><P><INPUT><o:p></o:p></P><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width=198 border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 align=right border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><a href="http://therapists.psychologytoday.com/" target="_blank" ><B><I>Find a therapist</I></B><B><I><br></I></B><B><I>near you.</I></B></A> <o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P align=right><B>Enter your City or Zip:<br><INPUT><br><INPUT></B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR></TABLE><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD width=152><br /><P><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></FORM><br /><P><FONT size=2><FONT face=Verdana>Whether overheard in a crowded restaurant, punctuating the enthusiastic chatter of friends, or as the noisy guffaws on a TV laugh track, laughter is a fundamental part of everyday life. It is so common that we forget how strange -- and important -- it is. Indeed, laughter is a "speaking in tongues" in which we're moved not by religious fervor but by an unconscious response to social and linguistic cues. Stripped of its variation and nuance, laughter is a regular series of short vowel-like syllables usually transcribed as "ha-ha," "ho-ho" or "hee-hee." These syllables are part of the universal human vocabulary, produced and recognized by people of all cultures.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Given the universality of the sound, our ignorance about the purpose and meaning of laughter is remarkable. We somehow laugh at just the right times, without consciously knowing why we do it. Most people think of laughter as a simple response to comedy, or a cathartic mood-lifter. Instead, after 10 years of research on this little-studied topic, I concluded that laughter is primarily a social vocalization that binds people together. It is a hidden language that we all speak. It is not a learned group reaction but an instinctive behavior programmed by our genes. Laughter bonds us through humor and play.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Nothing to joke about<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Despite its prominence in daily life, there is little research on how and why we laugh. I thought it was high time that we actually observed laughing people and described when they did it and what it meant. Research on laughter has led me out of my windowless laboratories into a more exciting social world of laughing gas, religious revivals, acting classes, tickle wars, baby chimpanzees and a search for the most ancient joke.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">As a starting point, three undergraduate students and I observed 1,200 people laughing spontaneously in their natural environments, from the student union to city sidewalks. Whenever we heard laughter, we noted the gender of the speaker (the person talking immediately before laughter occurred) and the audience (those listening to the speaker), whether the speaker or the audience laughed, and what the speaker said immediately before the laughter.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">While we usually think of laughter as coming from an audience after a wisecrack from a single speaker, contrary to expectation, the speakers we observed laughed almost 50% more than their audiences. The study also showed that banal comments like, "Where have you been?" or "It was nice meeting you, too" -- hardly knee-slappers -- are far more likely to precede laughter than jokes. Only 10% to 20% of the laughter episodes we witnessed followed anything joke-like. Even the most humorous of the 1,200 comments that preceded laughter weren't necessarily howlers: "You don't have to drink, just buy us drinks!" and "Was that before or after I took my clothes off?." being two of my favorites. This suggests that the critical stimulus for laughter is another person, not a joke.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Students in my classes confirmed the social nature of laughter by recording the circumstances of their laughter in diaries. After excluding the vicarious social effects of media (television, radio, books, etc.), its social nature was striking: Laughter was 30 times more frequent in social than solitary situations. The students were much more likely to talk to themselves or even smile when alone than to laugh. However happy we may feel, laughter is a signal we send to others and it virtually disappears when we lack an audience.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Laughter is also extremely difficult to control consciously. Try asking a friend to laugh, for example. Most will announce, "I can't laugh on command," or some similar statement. Your friends' observations are accurate -- their efforts to laugh on command will be forced or futile. It will take them many seconds to produce a laugh, if they can do it at all. This suggests that we cannot deliberately activate the brain's mechanisms for affective expression. Playfulness, being in a group, and positive emotional tone mark the social settings of most laughs.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Giggly girls, explained<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Linguist Deborah Tannen described gender differences in speech in her best-selling book, You Just Don't Understand (Ballantine, 1991). The gender differences in laughter may be even greater. In our 1,200 case studies, my fellow researchers and I found that while both sexes laugh a lot, females laugh more. In cross-gender conversations, females laughed 126% more than their male counterparts, meaning that women tend to do the most laughing while males tend to do the most laugh-getting. Men seem to be the main instigators of humor across cultures, which begins in early childhood. Think back to your high school class clown -- most likely he was a male. The gender pattern of everyday laughter also suggests why there are more male than female comedians. (Rodney Dangerfield likely gets more respect than he claims.)<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Given the differences in male and female laugh patterns, is laughter a factor in meeting, matching and mating? I sought an answer in the human marketplace of newspaper personal ads. In 3,745 ads placed on April 28, 1996 in eight papers from the Baltimore Sun to the San Diego Union-Tribune, females were 62% more likely to mention laughter in their ads, and women were more likely to seek out a "sense of humor" while men were more likely to offer it. Clearly, women seek men who make them laugh, and men are eager to comply with this request. When Karl Grammar and Irenaus Eibl-Eibesfeldt studied spontaneous conversations between mixed-sex pairs of young German adults meeting for the first time, they noted that the more a woman laughed aloud during these encounters, the greater her self-reported interest in the man she was talking to. In the same vein, men were more interested in women who laughed heartily in their presence. The personal ads and the German study complement an observation from my field studies: The laughter of the female, not the male, is the critical index of a healthy relationship. Guys can laugh or not, but what matters is that women get their yuks in.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">In many societies world wide -- ranging from the Tamil of Southern India to the Tzeltal of Mexico -- laughter is self-effacing behavior, and the women in my study may have used it as an unconscious vocal display of compliance or solidarity with a more socially dominant group member. I suspect, however, that the gender patterns of laughter are fluid and shift subconsciously with social circumstance. For example, the workplace giggles of a young female executive will probably diminish as she ascends the corporate ladder, but she will remain a barrel of laughs when cavorting with old chums. Consider your own workplace. Have you ever encountered a strong leader with a giggle? Someone who laughs a lot, and unconditionally, may be a good team player, but they'll seldom be a president.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">The laughter virus<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">As anyone who has ever laughed at the sight of someone doubled over can attest, laughter is contagious. Since our laughter is under minimal conscious control, it is spontaneous and relatively uncensored. Contagious laughter is a compelling display of Homo sapiens, a social mammal. It strips away our veneer of culture and challenges the hypothesis that we are in full control of our behavior. From these synchronized vocal outbursts come insights into the neurological roots of human social behavior and speech.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Consider the extraordinary 1962 outbreak of contagious laughter in a girls' boarding school in <st1:country-region><st1:place>Tanzania</st1:place></st1:country-region>. The first symptoms appeared on January 30, when three girls got the giggles and couldn't stop laughing. The symptoms quickly spread to 95 students, forcing the school to close on March 18. The girls sent home from the school were vectors for the further spread of the epidemic. Related outbreaks occurred in other schools in <st1:place>Central Africa</st1:place> and spread like wildfire, ceasing two-and-a-half years later and afflicting nearly 1,000 people.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Before dismissing the African outbreak as an anomaly, consider our own technologically triggered mini-epidemics produced ,by television laugh tracks. Laugh tracks have accompanied most television sitcoms since <st1:date Year="1950" Day="9" Month="9">September 9, 1950</st1:date>. At <st1:time Minute="0" Hour="7">7:00</st1:time> that evening, "The Hank McCune Show" used the first laugh track to compensate for being filmed without a live audience. The rest is history. Canned laughter may sound artificial, but it makes TV viewers laugh as if they were part o live theater audience.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">The irresistibility of others' laughter has its roots in the neurological mechanism of laugh detection. The fact that laughter is contagious raises the intriguing possibility that humans have an auditory laugh detector -- a neural circuit in the brain that responds exclusively to laughter. (Contagious yawning may involve a similar process in the visual domain.) Once triggered, the laugh detector activates a laugh generator, a neural circuit that causes us in turn to produce laughter.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Furthermore, laughter is not randomly scattered through speech. A speaker may say "You are going where?...ha-ha," but rarely, "You are going...ha-ha...where?" This is evidence of "the punctuation effect" -- the tendency to laugh almost exclusively at phrase breaks in speech. This pattern requires that speech has priority over laughter.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">The occurrence of speaker laughter at the end of phrases suggests that a neurologically based process governs the placement of laughter in speech, and that different brain regions are involved in the expression of cognitively oriented speech and the more emotion-laden vocalization of laughter. During conversation, speech trumps -- that is, it inhibits -- laughter.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Mediocre medicine<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Authorities from the Bible to Reader's Digest remind us that "laughter is the best medicine." Print and broadcast reporters produce upbeat, often frothy stories like "A Laugh a Day Keeps the Doctor Away." A best-selling Norman Cousins book and a popular Robin Williams film Patch Adams amplified this message. But left unsaid in such reports is a jarring truth: Laughter did not evolve to make us feel good or improve our health. Certainly, laughter unites people, and social support has been shown in studies to improve mental and physical health. Indeed, the presumed health benefits of laughter may be coincidental consequences of its primary goal: bringing people together.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Laughter is an energetic activity that raises our heart rate and blood pressure, but these physiological effects are incompletely documented and their medicinal benefits are even less certain. Lennart Levi, of the Karolinska Institute in <st1:City><st1:place>Stockholm</st1:place></st1:City>, reported that comedy activates the body's "fight or flight" system, increasing catecholamine levels in urine, a measure of activation and stress. Lee Berk, DHSc, of the Loma Linda School of Medicine, countered with a widely cited study that reported that laughter reduced catecholamines and other hormonal measures of sympathetic activation. This reduction in stress and associated hormones is the mechanism through which laughter is presumed to enhance immune function. Unfortunately, Berk's studies show at best a biological response to comedy. His reports included only five experimental subjects, never stated whether those subjects actually laughed, and were presented in only three brief abstracts.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Does a sense of humor or a lighthearted personality add years to your life? Not necessarily. A large-scale study by Howard Friedman, Ph.D., professor of psychology at the <st1:place><st1:PlaceType>University</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName>California</st1:PlaceName></st1:place> at <st1:City><st1:place>Riverside</st1:place></st1:City>, found optimism and sense of humor in childhood to be inversely related to longevity. This may be because people with untempered optimism indulge in risk-taking, thinking, "I'll be okay."<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Pain reduction is one of laughter's promising applications. Rosemary Cogan, Ph.D., a professor of psychology at <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Texas</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName>Tech</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>, found that subjects who laughed at a Lily Tomlin video or underwent a relaxation procedure tolerated more discomfort than other subjects. Humor may help temper intense pain. James Rotton, Ph.D., of <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Florida</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName>International</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>, reported that orthopedic surgery patients who watched comedic videos requested fewer aspirin and tranquilizers than the group that viewed dramas. Humor may also help us cope with stress. In a study by Michelle Newman, Ph.D., an assistant professor of psychology at <st1:place><st1:PlaceName>Penn</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType>State</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceType>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>, subjects viewed a film about three grisly accidents and had to narrate it either in a humorous or serious style. Those who used the humorous tone had the lowest negative affect and tension.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">A problem with these studies is that none of them separate the effects of laughter from those of humor. None allow for the possibility that presumed effects of laughter or humor may come from the playful settings associated with these behaviors. And none evaluate the uniqueness of laughter by contrasting it with other vocalizations like shouting.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><DIV><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Rigorous proof that we can reduce stress and pain through laughter remains an unrealized but reasonable prospect. While we wait for definitive evidence, it can't hurt -- and it's certainly enjoyable -- to laugh. So, a guy walks into a bar...<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P></DIV><br /><P><FONT face=Verdana color=#602020 size=5>ABSTRACT</FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="Times New Roman">Earthfill and rockfill dams with clay core have some problems such as voluminous material in cores. Therefore, they need a long time for construction, and during constructing this type of core moisture and compactibility must be controlled. Besides, clay is sensitive to climate. Other phenomena that may occur in clay core dams are piping and hydraulic fracture.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="Times New Roman">Due to these problems and for constructing more economical earth dams an alternative approach is developed by substituting clay core with asphaltic concrete core or asphaltic lining. They are mainly used in areas where natural impermeable materials of sufficient quality or quantity are not available.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="Times New Roman">This research considers presents the advantages of using asphalt in lining dams and in asphaltic concrete core dams. To show the ability of asphalt in dam industry, a comparison is dpne between an asphaltic concrete core dam and an asphaltic lining dam with a clay core dam is done. This comparsion includes seepage and stability analyses. These analyses have been performed by commercially available seepage analysis is done by Ansys software and the stability anlysis by Plaxis software.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face=Verdana>Keywords:</FONT><FONT size=3><FONT face="Times New Roman"> Asphaltic concrete core, Asphaltic lining, stability, seepage<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT face=Verdana color=#602020 size=5>INTRODUCTION</FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Bituminous core and bituminous lining are excelent waterproofing materials and well established in hydraulic engineering for many decades. Bituminous facings are used to waterproof the upstream faces of dams or embankments, or the bottoms of resevoirs which consist of materials of inadequate water-tightness (gravel or sandygravel soils, morainic or alluval soils and rockfill), as an alternative to waterproofing by means of natural materials (clay, silty clay, etc.) where natural impermeable materials of sufficient quality or quantity are not available[2].<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Using natural materials, the watertightness is generally provided by in impervious core, while with bituminous materials (exept for a few recent applications) it is usally provided by a continuous watertight revetment on upstream face. The characteristics of these facings are manifold and are strictly related to the properties of the structure on which thay are applied, namely: Bituminouse materials generally satisfy these requirements rather well, even if some of them may seem to conflict.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Different types of structures encountered, variety of ambient conditions, different evaluations of requirements, variety of bituminous material available and different construction techniques have resulted in considerable differences in the features and in the design of the alternatives used for bituminous facings. It is also sometimes difficult to find out whether considerable differences in bituminous facing depended on an actual and rational interpretation of technical requirements or mainly on the sensitivity and the artistic inspiration of the designer [2].<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><P><FONT size=3><FONT face="宋体, MS Song">Since clay core dams have been used for many years the efficiency of this type of dam is well documented. Therefore, in this research asphaltic concrete core dam and asphaltic facing dam are compared with clay core dam. To validate the result Maejaran dam which an asphaltic concrete core dam (located in the north of <st1:country-region><st1:place>Iran</st1:place></st1:country-region> in close to Ramsar city) is replaced to an asphaltic lining dam and a clay core dam. The dimensions of the dams are the same to each other. Cross section of each dams are present in Figures 1, 2 and 3.<o:p></o:p></FONT></FONT></P><br /><DIV align=center><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="99%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>邏輯</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><B>logic</B><B><o:p></o:p></B></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><br /><br /><TR><br /><TD width="20%"><br /><P>知識分類：<o:p></o:p></P></TD><br /><TD><br /><P><a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=008" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>人類社會篇</FONT></A>＞<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/SubCatSearch.asp?Query=2&upClass=008&keyWord=701&subkeyword=哲學觀念與流派%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>哲學觀念與流派 </FONT></A><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE><br /><P><o:p><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata><FONT color=#136b9c></FONT></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀人氣： 5 次<o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape></P><br /><FORM><br /><P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman"></FONT></o:p></P></FORM></TD></TR><br /><TR><br /><TD><br /><P>閱讀語言： <SELECT> <OPTION value=chi>中<OPTION value=eng>英<OPTION value=ce selected>中英</OPTION></SELECT><INPUT><INPUT></P><br /><P><br /><SCRIPT language=JavaScript><br> <!--<br> function showbigimages(ImgPath){<br> //alert(ImgPath);<br> //window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars =yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=795,height=575,top=0,left=0;");<br> window.open("ShowImages.asp?ImagesName=" + ImgPath ,"放大圖片","scrollbars=yes,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizable=yes");<br> }<br> function ShowExp(){<br> window.open("ShowExp.htm","延伸閱讀分類說明","scrollbars =no,toolbar=no,status=no,menubar=no,resizeable=no,width=500,height=400,top=100,left=100;"); <br> }<br> --><br> <br></script>{codeend}<br><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><TR ><TD ><P ><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><TR ><TD ><P ><v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR><TR ><TD ><DIV align=center><TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0 width="100%" border=0><TR ><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><P >關於推論與論證之研究。在邏輯中，一個論證的組成是，一組為真的陳述（前提）是使得進一步陳述（論證的結論）為真的充分條件。邏輯可分為演繹邏輯、歸納邏輯以及所謂非形式謬誤的研究（參閱<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=6783" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>deduction</FONT></A>、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=11733" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>induction</FONT></A>、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=8561" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>fallacy, formal and informal</FONT></A>）。現代形式邏輯以命題與演繹論證為主題，並從這些命題與演繹論證的內容抽離出它們所包含的邏輯形式。邏輯學家使用符號來表示那些邏輯形式，便於推論，也便於驗證有效性。邏輯常項包括（一）命題連結詞，如「非」（@8(logicNon.jpg），「且」（@8(logicAnd.jpg），「或」（@8(logicOr.jpg），「若－則」（(），（二）存在量詞與全稱量詞「(@8(logicSome.jpgx)」（可讀作「對於至少有一個體，稱為x，……為真」）以及「(@8(logicAll.jpgx)」（「對於每一個體，稱為x，……為真」）。再加上（三）等同概念（以=表示）與（四）一些屬於邏輯的謂詞。單單上述（一）的邏輯常項之研究，稱作<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=25586" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>命題演算</FONT></A>（propositional calculus）。涉及上述（一）、（二）與（四）者，屬一階<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=25584" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>謂詞演算</FONT></A>（first-order predicate calculus）領域。若強調上述（三），則加入「不等同」之詞。邏輯是哲學與數學領域的重要基礎。亦請參閱<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=24195" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>deontic logic</FONT></A>、<a href="http://203.64.158.220/ebintra/Content.asp?ContentID=25570" target="_blank" ><FONT color=#136b9c>modal logic</FONT></A>。 <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD><TD vAlign=top width="50%"><P >Study of inference and argument. In logic, an argument consists of a set of statements (the premises) whose truth is claimed to be sufficient for the truth of a further statement (the conclusion of the argument). Logic may be divided into deductive logic, inductive logic, and the study of what are often called informal fallacies (see deduction, induction, fallacy). Modern formal logic takes as its main subject matter propositions and deductive arguments, and it abstracts from their content the logical forms they embody. The logician uses a symbolic notation to express these logical forms and to facilitate inference and tests of validity. The logical constants include (1) such propositional connectives as "not" (symbolized as ¬), "and" (symbolized as ∧), "or" (symbolized as ∨), and "if-then" (symbolized as ⊃), and (2) the existential and universal quantifiers "(∃x)" (which may be read: "For at least one individual, call it x, it is true that") and "(∀x)" ("For each individual, call it x, it is true that"). Furthermore, (3) the concept of identity (expressed by =) and (4) some notion of predication belong to logic. When the logical constants in (1) alone are studied, the field is called propositional calculus. When (1), (2), and (4) are considered, the field is first-order predicate calculus. If the absence of (3) is stressed, the epithet "without identity" is added. Logic is fundamental to the fields of philosophy and mathematics. See also deontic logic, modal logic. <v:shape><v:imagedata></v:imagedata></v:shape><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><P ><o:p></o:p></P></TD></TR></TABLE></DIV><P ><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=3> </FONT></o:p></P><DIV align=center><P ><o:p></o:p></P><o:p><FONT face="Times New Roman" size=3> </FONT></o:p></DIV><br></script>
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