标题: good studd for AA (1) [打印本页] 作者: flyingty 时间: 2003-6-26 17:17 标题: good studd for AA (1) Changing the Subject
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The fallacies in this section change the subject by discussing the person making the argument instead of discussing reasons to believe or disbelieve the conclusion. While on some occasions it is useful to cite authorities, it is almost never appropriate to discuss the person instead of the argument. The fallacies described in this section are:
1. Attacking the Person (argumentum ad hominem)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Definition: The person presenting an argument is attacked instead of the argument itself. This takes many forms. For example, the person's character, nationality or religion may be attacked. Alternatively, it may be pointed out that a person stands to gain from a favourable outcome. Or, finally, a person may be attacked by association, or by the company he keeps. There are three major forms of Attacking the Person: (1) ad hominem (abusive): instead of attacking an assertion, the argument attacks the person who made the assertion. (2) ad hominem (circumstantial): instead of attacking an assertion the author points to the relationship between the person making the assertion and the person's circumstances. (3) ad hominem (tu quoque): this form of attack on the person notes that a person does not practise what he preaches.
Examples: (i) You may argue that God doesn't exist, but you are just following a fad. (ad hominem abusive) (ii) We should discount what Premier Klein says about taxation because he won't be hurt by the increase. (ad hominem circumstantial) (iii) We should disregard Share B.C.'s argument because they are being funded by the logging industry. (ad hominem circumstantial) (iv) You say I shouldn't drink, but you haven't been sober for more than a year. (ad hominem tu quoque)
Proof: Identify the attack and show that the character or circumstances of the person has nothing to do with the truth or falsity of the proposition being defended.
2. Appeal to Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Definition: While sometimes it may be appropriate to cite an authority to support a point, often it is not. In particular, an appeal to authority is inappropriate if: (i) the person is not qualified to have an expert opinion on the subject, (ii) experts in the field disagree on this issue. (iii) the authority was making a joke, drunk, or otherwise not being serious A variation of the fallacious appeal to authority is hearsay. An argument from hearsay is an argument which depends on second or third hand sources.
Examples: (i) Noted psychologist Dr. Frasier Crane recommends that you buy the EZ-Rest Hot Tub. (ii) Economist John Kenneth Galbraith argues that a tight money policy s the best cure for a recession. (Although Galbraith is an expert, not all economists agree on this point.) (iii) We are headed for nuclear war. Last week Ronald Reagan remarked that we begin bombing Russia in five minutes. (Of course, he said it as a joke during a microphone test.) (iv) My friend heard on the news the other day that Canada will declare war on Serbia. (This is a case of hearsay; in fact, the reporter said that Canada would not declare war.) (v) The Ottawa Citizen reported that sales were up 5.9 percent this year. (This is hearsay; we are not n a position to check the Citizen's sources.)
Proof: Show that either (i) the person cited is not an authority in the field, or that (ii) there is general disagreement among the experts in the field on this point.
3. Anonymous Authorities
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Definition: The authority in question is not named. This is a type of appeal to authority because when an authority is not named it is impossible to confirm that the authority is an expert. However the fallacy is so common it deserves special mention. A variation on this fallacy is the appeal to rumour. Because the source of a rumour is typically not known, it is not possible to determine whether to believe the rumour. Very often false and harmful rumours are deliberately started n order to discredit an opponent.
Examples: (i) A government official said today that the new gun law will be proposed tomorrow. (ii) Experts agree that the best way to prevent nuclear war is to prepare for it. (iii) It is held that there are more than two million needless operations conducted every year. (iv) Rumour has it that the Prime Minster will declare another holiday in October.
Proof: Argue that because we don't know the source of the information we have no way to evaluate the reliability of the information.
4. Style Over Substance
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Definition: The manner in which an argument (or arguer) is presented is taken to affect the likelihood that the conclusion is true.
Examples: (i) Nixon lost the presidential debate because of the sweat on his forehead. (ii) Trudeau knows how to move a crowd. He must be right. (iii) Why don't you take the advice of that nicely dressed young man?
Proof: While it is true that the manner in which an argument is presented will affect whether people believe that its conclusion is true, nonetheless, the truth of the conclusion does not depend on the manner in which the argument is presented. In order to show that this fallacy is being committed, show that the style in this case does not affect the truth or falsity of the conclusion.作者: anchoret 时间: 2003-6-26 17:27
好东西！！！作者: happyfish0517 时间: 2005-7-14 01:31
GOOD~~