ChaseDream
标题: 【阅读】10/03起阅读寂静整理（10/14更新，47篇原始，41篇考古） [打印本页]
作者: huajiananhai 时间: 2018-10-3 20:44
标题: 【阅读】10/03起阅读寂静整理（10/14更新，47篇原始，41篇考古）
目录一、 【考古】盐
二、 【考古】冷血动物
三、 【暂无考古】Hum
四、 【考古】聚集经济
五、 【考古】Stakeholder theory
六、 【考古】Lost city
七、 【考古】Testimony
八、 【考古】Wasp
九、 【考古】男女工资gap
十、 【暂无考古】Salesman
十一、 【考古】脊椎动物
十二、 【考古】农业起源
十三、 【考古】Ceiling
十四、 【暂无考古】女性工作
十五、 【考古】Dam
十六、 【考古】恐龙灭绝
十七、 【考古】东京仿生铁路
十八、 【考古】Alternative therapy
十九、 【考古】女性政治
二十、 【考古】大人小孩实验
二十一、 【考古】Market share
二十二、 【考古】Market communication
二十三、 【考古】Creative brand logo
二十四、 【考古】美国语言
二十五、 【考古】日本闭关锁国
二十六、 【考古】女性选举
二十七、 【考古】蝴蝶迁徙
二十八、 【考古】Telescope
二十九、 【考古】Fugus
三十、 【考古】补牙
三十一、 【暂无考古】环境学家 【新增原始】
三十二、 【考古】Tempered glass
三十三、 【考古】英国kinship
三十四、 【考古】faint young saint paradox
三十五、 【考古】Pop-out
三十六、 【考古】Factoring
三十七、 【暂无考古】文艺复兴女性地位
三十八、 【考古】Self-regulation
三十九、 【考古】Patent
四十、 【本月原始】皮肤呼吸
四十一、 【考古】bookstore
四十二、 【新增考古】部落消失 【新增考古并改名】
四十三、 【考古】大小公司R&D
四十四、 【考古】鉴定雕塑
四十五、 【暂无考古】力
四十六、 【考古】Wage和investment
相似库11.13放附件里了。
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2018-10-03起寂静整理汇总
【原始汇总】10/03起原始狗汇总 by Cinderella灰
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329375-1-1.html
【数学】10/03起数学寂静原始稿 by qv0518
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329378-1-1.html
【数学讨论稿1-100】10/03起数学讨论稿 by Lyyyyyyynnnnnnn
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329380-1-1.html
【数学讨论稿101-200】10/03起数学讨论稿 by 霁月月月
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329618-1-1.html
【阅读】10/02起阅读寂静整理 by huajiananhai
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329382-1-1.html
【作文】10/03起作文寂静整理 by qv0518
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329379-1-1.html
【语法】10/03起语法寂静整理 by 郑布拉希莫维奇
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329394-1-1.html
【IR】1003起IR寂静整理 by Super鳄鱼杭
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329392-1-1.html
[attach]225903[/attach]
[attach]225902[/attach]
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-4 09:09
忘了第三篇还是第四篇， 因为失忆了整整一篇， 讲了testimony，一般都认为adult更reliable， 作者说孩子更reliable。 因为adult会在记忆里加入自己理解的meaning，造成false memory。有一道题是一个专有名词怎么产生的， 需要回原文找一下，是两个学者提出的， 学者名在第二段开头，这个名词在第三段，原文在这个部分给了个robbery的例子，说记忆里那个画面越vivid，这个专有名词更容易产生。
Memory on Trial
Research suggests that children's memory may be more reliable than adults' in court cases
Research says verbatim trace, i.e. memories of what actually happened, may reduce false memories.
Credit and Larger Version
March 6, 2008
This material is available primarily for archival purposes. Telephone numbers or other contact information may be out of date; please see current contact information at media contacts.
The U.S. legal system has long assumed that all testimony is not equally credible, that some witnesses are more reliable than others. In tough cases with child witnesses, it assumes adult witnesses to be more reliable. But what if the legal system had it wrong?
Researchers Valerie Reyna, human development professor, and Chuck Brainerd, human development and law school professor -- both from Cornell University -- argue that like the two-headed Roman god Janus, memory is of two minds -- that is, memories are captured and recorded separately and differently in two distinct parts of the mind.
They say children depend more heavily on a part of the mind that records, "what actually happened," while adults depend more on another part of the mind that records, "the meaning of what happened." As a result, they say, adults are more susceptible to false memories, which can be extremely problematic in court cases.
Reyna's and Brainerd's research, funded by the National Science Foundation, Arlington, Va., sparked more than 30 follow-up memory studies, many of them also funded by NSF. The researchers review the follow-on studies in an upcoming issue of Psychological Bulletin.
Tis research shows that meaning-based memories are largely responsible for false memories, especially in adult witnesses. Because the ability to extract meaning from experience develops slowly, children are less likely to produce these false memories than adults, and are more likely to give accurate testimony when properly questioned.
The finding is counterintuitive; it doesn't square with current legal tenets, and may have important implications for legal proceedings.
"Because children have fewer meaning-based experience records, they are less likely to form false memories," says Reyna. "But the law assumes children are more susceptible to false memories than adults."
The court's reliance on adult testimony has a long history. Before the early 1970s, children younger than eight years old rarely testified, because they failed the court's competency requirements.
Then in the 1970s, when statistics showed an increase in the number of child abuse cases, courts were forced to allow the testimony of young victims, only to reemphasize adult testimony in the 1990s, when some children's testimony was proven to be unreliable.
"Courts give witness instructions to tell the truth and nothing but the truth," says Brainerd. "This assumes witnesses will either be truthful or lie, but there is a third possibility now being recognized -- false memories."
According to Brainerd, "Things are about to change radically."
Fuzzy Trace Theory
Traditional theories of memory assume a person's memories are based on event reconstruction, especially after delays of a few days, weeks, or months. However, Reyna and Brainerd's Fuzzy Trace Theory hypothesizes that people store two types of experience records or memories: verbatim traces and gist traces.
Verbatim traces are memories of what actually happened. Gist traces are based on a person's understanding of what happened, or what the event meant to him or her. Gist traces stimulate false memories because they store impressions of what an event meant, which can be inconsistent with what actually happened.
False memories can be identified when witnesses accurately describe what they remember but those memories are proven false based on other unimpeachable facts.
"When gist traces are especially strong, they can produce phantom recollections -- that is, illusory, vivid recollections of things that did not happen, such as remembering a robber brandished a weapon and made threatening statements," says Reyna.
Brainerd argues that because witness testimony is the primary evidence in criminal prosecutions, false memories are a dominant reason for convictions of innocent people.
Recently, in Cook County, Ill., more than 200 murder confessions were identified as being based on adult's false memory reports because they conflicted with unimpeachable facts. For example, a person may have falsely remembered being in one location, but a sales receipt showed that he was in another location at the same time a crime was committed.
In child abuse cases where the law gives the benefit of the doubt to adult testimony, the results can be even more disconcerting. "Failure to recognize differences in how adults and children produce memory unfairly tilts the U.S. legal system against child witnesses," says Reyna.
"Children do not have the same fullness of emotional and intellectual experience as do adults when it comes to deriving meaning from situations," says Reyna. "So, meaning-based memory is less likely to influence a child's testimony."
The researchers say their transformative "two-mind" memory approach can reduce the number of false memories in court cases and give more validity to children's testimony.
Memory Science
Reyna and Brainerd developed several mathematical models associated with Fuzzy Trace Theory that can be used to predict memory outcomes in both adults and children.
The models, which test memory, have been used to determine ways in which attorneys, investigators, law enforcement officials and others can ask questions to help people access verbatim memories while suppressing false memories. The researchers say using neutral prompts to cue witnesses can help them remember what actually happened.
Reyna and Brainerd also say returning a witness to the scene of an event in a highly neutral way can cue verbatim memories and help the legal process.
The models provide the most accurate information to date on the causes of false memories. Using them, researchers can determine with surprising accuracy when a person accesses both verbatim and gist memory.
Reyna and Brainerd's findings are summarized in a new book, The Science of False Memory, published by Oxford University Press.
作者: sr.cythia 时间: 2018-10-4 09:29
光看这个回忆准确性这篇，是5--8月的库里面有的。。。。哇噻
作者: 唐僧的格子裳 时间: 2018-10-4 11:01
各位狗主加油啊！！
作者: SW13 时间: 2018-10-4 17:45
想问一下考古的testimony是不是考错了呀0.0 感觉沙发引的应该是对的~
作者: GMAT770小生 时间: 2018-10-4 19:29
是又有重复库了吗
作者: 芒果与草莓 时间: 2018-10-4 21:16
太感谢各位狗主了，呜呜呜都是大好人
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-4 21:34
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1324561-1-1.html
2018-5-30
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1303528-1-1.html
2017-8-5
还一篇作文根本读不懂是说一个单词“NUM”好像是声呐还是声波，是说人类根本听不到，也无法探测到。然后又说什么underground 地震会产生这个东西，但是它们只出现一次然后就消失了。好像又两种num然后后面就开始说什么她什么时候会出现什么的好像 完全读不懂，大神可以考古下看看有没有。
作者: LYRIEL 时间: 2018-10-4 21:38
感谢分享！
作者: 钱宝 时间: 2018-10-4 23:19
亲，testimony那篇二楼找到的是对的 考古里面的是是不对的版本 去掉二楼fuzzy trace theory的部分 基本就是前半部分的浓缩
作者: 一打柠檬茶 时间: 2018-10-5 00:59
狗主们和楼主们都是天使 太感谢了
好人一生平安！！
作者: rita199011 时间: 2018-10-5 09:39
感谢
作者: sr.cythia 时间: 2018-10-5 09:50
我以为是证人的那个TESTMONY。。。。。然后看了PDF发掘和证人的不是一个东西。。。。。。然后就没有发现重复的库。。。。为什么感觉阅读变难了。。。。
作者: sr.cythia 时间: 2018-10-5 09:51
所以是证人 的那个？？不是PDF里面那个 两个派别？
作者: sherwinzzz 时间: 2018-10-5 10:24
PDF里面考古第7篇考错了，我去年考到过这篇所以有印象，还是感谢楼主和构筑们
作者: GMAT770小生 时间: 2018-10-5 13:46
话说那个lost city好像在818和910 的库里都有
作者: rita199011 时间: 2018-10-5 13:55
想问下为什么手机上看不到阅读的附件呢？数学原始稿的附近可以看到的
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-5 21:50
JOURNAL ARTICLE
The Life of the First Vertebrates
Robert W. Griffith
BioScience
Vol. 44, No. 6 (Jun., 1994), pp. 408-417 (10 pages)
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1312364
作者: 喵抖喵 时间: 2018-10-5 22:48
有新狗吗？有相似库吗？
作者: glorialan0116 时间: 2018-10-6 00:00
求更新
作者: 艾倫貝爾 时间: 2018-10-6 01:18
帮朋友代构筑:
(1)有篇讲女人投票权的，说女人原本没有投票权，但其实透过女性非政治组织影响政策和法规，实质上是有影响力的
有了投票权后女人的政治影响力反而下降，因为她们以为投票就是影响政治，却减少了以前的那些活动
(2)所得高低差距严重，希望透过高薪族设立薪资上限(Ceiling)来解决，有一说这样会造成高薪人士不努力工作与减少工时，但其实高薪者有其他如权力、社会地位等金钱外的回报，让他们不会因此而减少工作
有一说设定上限没有用，因为高薪者通常是仰赖Bonus来赚钱，但其实股东们不喜欢这样的薪资结构
结论应该是上限政策比大众想的好
(3)两栖类(?)用皮肤交换空气
原本学者以为他们皮肤比较thin不好交换空气，但其实牠有发展2个adaption，1:处在缺氧环境时皮肤barrier会变不thin。2:心脏发展特殊构造，让空气更效率地从心血到皮肤
之前的观点是忽略了这些
作者: 尽人事听天命 时间: 2018-10-6 05:46
求testimony那篇正确的考古 感谢
作者: 钱宝 时间: 2018-10-6 06:51
二楼找的是对的
作者: sr.cythia 时间: 2018-10-6 07:07
谢谢
作者: Serena33 时间: 2018-10-6 09:34
感谢！！！
作者: SW13 时间: 2018-10-6 10:09
请问是这个古吗~？
作者: Cynthia_1 时间: 2018-10-6 11:59
testimony那篇感觉不太对啊，麻烦楼主再确认一下吧～一个是说孩子的证词比大人的更加reliable 下面开始说诗词了。。感觉不是一个东西啊。。。
作者: ssjksunny 时间: 2018-10-6 16:00
感谢分享！
作者: xxxdddlll 时间: 2018-10-6 16:40
感谢分享！
作者: dawny 时间: 2018-10-6 17:32
2楼那个对的
作者: Lightpearl- 时间: 2018-10-6 21:28
https://forum.chasedream.com/for ... 5%E7%A5%A8%E6%9D%83
麻烦看一下女性投票权的考古是这个吗？
作者: 天信子 时间: 2018-10-7 01:10
感谢分享！
作者: 几许VV 时间: 2018-10-7 02:09
**以下为二楼的testimony原文的翻译，感谢bzy!提供的原文！**
美国的法律制度长期以来一直认为所有证词都不是同等可信的，有些证人比其他证人更可靠。在有儿童证人的严峻案件中，它假定成年证人更可靠。但是，如果法律制度错了呢？
研究人员Valerie Reyna，人类发展教授，以及来自康奈尔大学的人类发展和法学院教授Chuck Brainerd认为，就像双头罗马神Janus一样，记忆有两种思想 - 即记忆被捕获并在心灵的两个不同部分分别和不同地记录。
他们说，孩子们更多地依赖于记录“实际发生的事情”的心灵的一部分，而成年人更多地依赖记录的另一部分，“发生的事情的意义”。因此，他们说，成年人更容易受到错误记忆的影响，这在法庭案件中可能非常成问题。
Reyna和Brainerd的研究由弗吉尼亚州阿灵顿国家科学基金会资助，引发了30多项后续记忆研究，其中许多也由NSF资助。研究人员在即将出版的“心理学公报”中回顾了后续研究。
这项研究表明，基于意义的记忆是造成虚假记忆的主要原因，特别是在成年证人中。因为从经验中提取意义的能力发展缓慢，所以儿童比成人更不可能产生这些错误的记忆，并且在适当的质疑时更有可能提供准确的证词。
这一发现是违反直觉的;它不符合现行的法律原则，可能对法律诉讼产生重要影响。
“因为儿童的基于意义的经验记录较少，所以他们不太可能形成错误的记忆，”雷纳说。 “但法律规定，儿童比成年人更容易受到错误记忆的影响。”
法院对成人证词的依赖历史悠久。在20世纪70年代早期之前，8岁以下的儿童很少作证，因为他们没有通过法院的能力要求。
然后在20世纪70年代，当统计数据显示虐待儿童案件数量增加时，法院被迫允许年轻受害者的证词，只是在20世纪90年代再次强调成人证词，当时一些儿童的证词被证明是不可靠的。
布雷纳德说：“法院给出证人指示说实话，只说实话。” “这假设证人要么是真实的，要么是谎言，但现在有第三种可能性被认可 - 错误的记忆。”
根据布雷纳德的说法，“事情即将彻底改变。”
模糊跟踪理论
传统的记忆理论假设一个人的记忆是基于事件重建，特别是在几天，几周或几个月的延迟之后。然而，Reyna和Brainerd的模糊跟踪理论假设人们存储两种类型的经验记录或记忆：逐字痕迹和要点痕迹。
逐字痕迹是对实际发生的事情的记忆。要点痕迹基于一个人对发生的事情的理解，或事件对他或她的意义。 Gist痕迹会刺激错误的记忆，因为它们存储了事件意义的印象，这可能与实际发生的事情不一致。
当证人准确地描述他们所记得的内容时，可以识别虚假记忆，但根据其他无懈可击的事实证明这些记忆是错误的。
“当主要痕迹特别强烈时，它们可以产生幻象回忆 - 即对未发生的事物进行虚幻，生动的回忆，例如记住强盗挥舞武器并发表威胁声明，”Reyna说。
布雷纳德辩称，由于证人证词是刑事诉讼的主要证据，虚假记忆是无辜人民定罪的主要原因。
最近，在伊利诺伊州库克县，超过200起谋杀罪被认定是基于成人的虚假记忆报告，因为他们与无懈可击的事实相冲突。例如，一个人可能错误地记得在一个地方，但是销售收据显示他在犯罪的同时在另一个地方。
在虐待儿童案件中，法律赋予成人证词怀疑的好处，结果可能更令人不安。 “未能认识到成人和儿童如何产生记忆的差异，不公平地使美国的法律制度不利于儿童证人，”Reyna说。
“在从情境中获取意义时，儿童的情感和智力体验并不像成年人那样丰富，”雷纳说。 “因此，基于意义的记忆不太可能影响孩子的证词。”
研究人员表示，他们的变革性“双心”记忆方法可以减少法庭案件中的错误记忆数量，并使儿童的证词更有效。
记忆科学
Reyna和Brainerd开发了几种与模糊跟踪理论相关的数学模型，可用于预测成人和儿童的记忆结果。
测试记忆的模型已被用于确定律师，调查员，执法官员和其他人可以提出问题的方式，以帮助人们获取逐字记忆，同时抑制错误记忆。 研究人员表示，使用中性提示来提示证人可以帮助他们记住实际发生的事情。
Reyna和Brainerd还表示，以高度中立的方式将一名目击者送回事件现场，可以提供逐字记忆并帮助法律程序。
这些模型提供了迄今为止关于错误记忆原因的最准确信息。 使用它们，研究人员可以在一个人访问逐字记录和一般记忆时以惊人的准确度来确定。
Reyna和Brainerd的研究结果总结在牛津大学出版社出版的新书“假记忆科学”中。
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-7 09:02
Profitability and market share: A reflection on the functional relationship
Joachim Schwalbach
First published: May 1991
一般认为market share和利润率positively correlated。market share更高的大公司的利润率比小公司高，empirical studies也支持此观点。实际上小公司的利润率也不差，至少不会输给大公司。利润率比较低的是那些中等大小的公司。对大公司来说，65~70%的market share 利润率最高，再高的话利润率也会下降的
Abstract
The paper analyzes the functional relationship between profitability and market share for type of businesses in the PIMS data base. Although a linear relationship has been imposed in other studies, our result shows that empirically it seems a poor representation of the data. In addition, three observations seem to be most evident. First, small‐share businesses were not per se less successful than larger business units. In the service market and the market for raw or semi‐finished materials small‐share businesses were just as profitable or even more profitable than larger business units. Second, some businesses were ‘stuck in the middle’, which was most evident in the service market but also in the retail and wholesale markets. Third, very large‐share businesses were often less profitable. A critical market share was identified as between 65 and 70 percent. Beyond that level the ROI decreased.
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-482763-1-1.html
原来JJ中问raw material是怎么样的，JJ答案是market share小的和那些market share大的差不多，在附件4 Exp result中我们可以看到：In the market for raw or semi-finished materials are very small business units with less than 5 percent market shares about equally successful as business with about 10 pervent market share. 答案呼之欲出。
原帖链接：http://forum.chasedream.com/GMAT_Math/thread-482573-1-2.html
In the market for raw or semi-finished materials are very small business units with less than 5 percent market share about equally successful as businesses with about 10 percent market share.
作者: GMAT770小生 时间: 2018-10-7 09:57
问下 楼主大人 这次的库是只有阅读和1113的库重复了还是 所有的科目都重复了
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-7 10:34
https://forum.chasedream.com/forum.php?mod=redirect&goto=findpost&ptid=1329498&pid=24292073&fromuid=1333346
第一段：现在流行的几乎所有的显微镜，都有一个缺点：好像是通过镜片什么的来对焦，会有折射衍射之类的（defraction?反正就是测量珠峰那篇里面的那个词）。某个科学家，很早之前提出了一个方法来观察测量精密的atom之类的，但是一直无法实现，因为not until recently，才发现了能够达到那么高精度变化的物质（也就是说你可以让他只膨胀或者缩小1微微米那种，这样材料做出来的显微镜精度高）（这句话好像有题）
第一段说到了, 某种光的波长不在人类可以看到的波长之中, 所以某科学家提出了一个理论跟仪器, 但是在那时候无法制作出该仪器第二段说到了, 现在科技的进步导致该仪器已经产生.
Objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light are a staple of contemporary science and technology. Biologists study single molecules of protein or DNA; materials scientists examine atomicscale flaws in crystals; microelectronics engineers lay out circuit patterns only a few tens of atoms thick. Until recently this minute world could be seen only by cumbersome, often destructive methods such as electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. It lay beyond the reach of any instrument as simple and direct as the familiar light microscope.
A family of new microscopes opens this realm to direct observation. The devices can map atomic and molecular shapes, electrical, magnetic and mechanical properties and even temperature variations at a higher resolution than ever before, without the need to modify the specimen or expose it to damaging, high-energy radiation. The achievement seems implausible. More than 100 years ago, after all, the German physicist and lensmaker Ernst Abbe described a fundamental limitation of any microscope that relies on lenses to focus light or other radiation: diffraction obscures details smaller than about one half the wavelength of the radiation.
第一段：光学显微镜有人说不给力，因为有折射什么会影响，然后1956年（大概是这时候）有人提出了一种理论可以解决这个问题，但还没办法通过这个理论制作新的显微镜，因为缺少能够精确定位的仪器还是技术来着（失忆了。。。但这里有题，看到文章很容易locate）
The new microscopes-typified by the scanning tunneling microscope, for which Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer of the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel prize in 1986-overcome this Abbe barrier with ease. The principle by which they do so was first described in 1956. In that year]. A. O'Keefe, then of the U. S. Army Mapping Service, proposed a microscope in which light would shine through a tiny hole in an opaque screen, illuminating an object directly in front of the screen. Light transmitted through the specimen or reflected back through the hole would be recorded as the sample was scanned back and forth. O'Keefe pointed out that the resolution of such a "scanning near-field microscope" would be limited only by the size of the hole and not by the wavelength of the light. In principle the device could make superresolving images-images showing details smaller than half a wavelength.
O'Keefe acknowledged that technology capable of positioning and moving an object with the needed precision did not exist. By resorting to long-wavelength radiation, however, Eric Ash of University College, London, adopted the O'Keefe strategy in 1972 to circumvent the Abbe barrier. He passed microwave radiation at a wavelength of three centimeters through a pinhole-size aperture and scanned an object in front of it to record an image with a resolution of 150 microns-one
two-hundredth of a wavelength.
By that time, means of controlling sample position and movement with the precision needed to surpass the resolution of a conventional light microscope were becoming available. In the same year as Ash's demonstration, Russell D. Young of the National Bureau of Standards succeeded in manipulating objects in three dimensions with a precision of about a nanometer (a billionth of a meter). He relied on piezoelectrics-ceramic materials that change size ever so slightly when an electrical potential across the material is changed. Piezoelectric controls opened the way to the development, in 1981, of the supreme example of a scanning near-field microscope, the scanning tunneling microscope, or STM [see "The Scanning Tunneling Microscope," by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer; SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, August, 1985).
第二段：说这个新型显微镜“XXX tunnelling microscope”的工作原理，这个显微镜就是通过control（大概就是支架）来控制一个probe，由于这种材料能够精密控制大小，这样能够让那个probe尽可能的贴近标本的表面，但是不接触。这样足够近的情况下，两边如果有电压，就会产生一个"tunnel"，实际就是两者的gap中产生电流了。（有题问tunnel是什么，就是the nature of currents between probe and specimen）这个电流的强度，是由probe和标本中物质粒子的距离决定的，probe会在整个标本上移动，当他经过一堆atom上时，电流就强，当他经过atom之间的相对空白的地方（想象两颗石子中间的空当），电流就弱，所以根据电流大小就可以知道这个标本的表面的形状。
In the STM the "aperture" is a tiny tungsten probe, its tip ground so fine that it may consist of only a single atom and measure just .2 nanometer in width. Piezoelectric controls maneuver the tip to within a nanometer or two of the surface of a conducting specimen-so close that the electron clouds of the atom at the probe tip and of the nearest atom of the specimen overlap. When a small voltage is applied to the tip, electrons "tunnel" across the gap, generating a minuscule tunneling current. The strength of the current is exquisitely sensitive to the width of the gap; typically it decreases by a factor of 10 each time the gap is widened by .1 nanometer-half the diameter of an atom.
P2：解释这种技术，这种scanner是根据这种原理一**造的（这里有step的题）。这种技术是用的currency电流，然后控制扫描的东西在一个steady的height上，然后过程中不断地front and back，这些不用记，找关键词就好
X and y piezoelectric controls (which govern motion in the two dimensions of a plane) move the probe back and forth across the specimen surface in a raster pattern, its parallel tracks separated by perhaps a fraction of a nanometer. If the probe maintained a steady height, the tunneling current would fluctuate dramatically, increasing as the tip passed over bumps such as surface atoms and falling to nothing as it crossed gaps between atoms. Instead the probe moves up and down in concert with the topography. A feedback mechanism senses the variations in tunneling current and varies the voltage applied to a third, Z, control. The Z piezoelectric moves the probe vertically to stabilize the current and maintain a constant gap between the microscope's tip and the surface.
The variations in the voltage applied to the zpiezoelectric are electronically translated into an image of surface relief. If the sharpness of the probe, the precision of the controls and the fineness of the raster scan are all sufficient, STM images can reveal individual atoms, as small as .2 nanometer in diameter. The images are superresolving: the quantum-mechanical wavelength of the tunneling electrons in the probe―the "radiation" that gives rise to the image―is approximately one nanometer.
作者: 艾倫貝爾 时间: 2018-10-7 11:46
是!
作者: Veraaaaa 时间: 2018-10-7 15:27
感谢分享！
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-7 20:42
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA19294301
Title: Comparing intensity and effectiveness of marketing communications: services versus non-services
Author(s): J. Duncan Herrington, James G. Lollar, Michael J. Cotter, and James A. Henley, Jr. .
Source: Journal of Advertising Research.
Much of the literature regarding the advertising of services implies that services are more difficult to communicate than non-services. Assuming that this is true, is it reasonable to expect that services communications will be comparatively less effective at generating sales? To address this question, this study compares the intensity and effectiveness of total marketing communications among service and non-service firms serving consumer and industrial customers. Additional comparisons were made using advertising alone. The results suggest that, contrary to expectations, services communications appear to be no less effective at generating sales than non-services communications. In fact, the impact of marketing communications is higher for consumer service firms than for consumer non-service firms - at least in the short run. In light of these findings, several general implications for both researchers and services marketers are discussed.
Marketing communications （MC）
S1原来认为service公司难做marketing,因为都是无形产品，所以service公司花在MC上的钱比nonservice少。作者提出质疑
S2 MC中一个重点是看长期还是短期。 A设计实验在customer market 和industry market比较。Customer market中service回报>non service； 但是在industry market中回报差不多; 长期也差不多（本段出了道题目:可以推断出A的试验方法如何，我选了consistent with之前的研究）S3失忆了 没出题
P1 因为 service 是 intangible 的，所以比 product 难做 marketing。所以 service firm 花在 MC 的钱比 nonservicefirm 花的少。作者提出疑问：这个 assumpion 正确吗?
Because services are intangible, they can be more difficult to communicate and display than physical goods (Rathmell, 1974) Firms marketing physical goods (non-services) can readily display product features and attributes. Service organizations by comparison are limited to the communication of intangible features and/or the physical evidence associated with the purchase or use of a service.
That services are intangible and thus perhaps more difficult to communicate suggests two broad questions for service marketers. First, does the characteristic of intangibility imply that marketing communications (MC) will be any less effective for service firms? In other words, will the return on marketing communications expenditures be lower for service firms than for non-service firms? Second, if MC are less effective for services compared to non- services, should services marketers be spending relatively more, less, or the same amount on MC as non- service firms?
Research shows that in practice, MC expenditures among service firms are relatively lower than MC expenditures by non-service firms. This practice makes sense if the financial returns on MC investment are indeed lower for services. On the other hand, it can also be argued that if returns are relatively lower service marketers need to spend more to generate equivalent sales and profit volume. At this time there exists no compelling evidence to support either position.
The purpose of this exploratory study is to provide services marketers with information that can be used to help make decisions regarding MC expenditures. This is accomplished by assessing MC intensity and effectiveness across several hundred service and non-service firms serving both consumer and organizational markets. In an effort to address short- and long-term budgeting concerns, both the current impact and the duration (carryover) of MC on sales are examined.
【本月原始】wunderkindye
4.向客户介绍产品（MC）
以往研究表明service公司相比non-service公司在MC上花费较少资源，以往对此的解释是service的产品特征难以描述，因此公司不关注。
新的研究发现service公司其实比non-service公司在MC上得到的回报更好（这里要注意研究分为2B和2C的service和non-service公司，一共四种情况，在2B时service比较好，2C时差不多，有一道题时关于这里的细节的）。研究者结合之前的研究解释为service公司不是不关注MC，而是做MC的效率较高，因此花费较少资源。
H1a: MCI will be lower among consumer service firms than among consumer non-service firms.
H1b: MCI will be lower among industrial service firms than among industrial non-service firms.
H2a: The magnitude of the current impact of marketing communications on sales will be lower for consumer service firms than for consumer non-service firms.
H2b: The magnitude of the current impact of marketing communications on sales will be lower for industrial service firms than for industrial non-service firms.
DISCUSSION AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
p1 讲了人们认为 service industry 的 MC 不如 nonservice industry 有效，因为一个原因（assumption 此处高亮有题）第一段最后一句是个问句，说这个 assumption 一定是对的么？
In general, this study reports three attempts, all unsuccessful, to find evidence in support of the assumption that intangibility or some other unique characteristic makes services communications less effective than non-services communications. Another finding was the reaffirmation that consumer service firms spend less on MC than consumer non-service firms. In light of this information several important questions arise. For instance, why are service firms spending less on MC than non-service firms? Why is it that despite lower expenditures services MC seems to be no less effective, or in the case of consumer services more effective, at generating sales?
Additionally, why are there differences in MC effectiveness among firms serving consumer and organizational markets? Finally, in light of these findings should service firms spend less or more on MC? The following section offers some tentative answers to these questions.
One explanation would be that consumer service firms expect lower returns on their MC expenditures. Perhaps some service firms are heeding the current rhetoric in the literature regarding the difficulty of communicating services and interpreting it to mean that MC will be less effective. As a consequence they are spending less on MC.
In setting MC budgets, there are factors other than expected returns to consider, some of which may weigh more heavily on the decision than return on advertising. Perhaps service firms are in general more limited in terms of availability of operating funds and are thus unable to spend on MC at the same level as non-service firms. For instance, many service firms (eg, retailers) operate on razor-thin margins and/or operate in intensely price- competitive arenas (eg, airlines).
It is interesting to note that while consumer service and non-service firms differ in terms of MCI, there are no significant differences in Al. This would seem to suggest that differences in MCI may be attributable to one or more of the other elements of the MC mix (eg, personal selling, sales promotion, public relations activities).
One of the surprise findings of the study is that the current impact of MC on sales is higher for consumer service firms than for consumer non-service firms. Undeniably, intangibility can make communication more difficult. So how can service firms spend less on MC and still get higher returns? Several possible explanations come to mind.
First, perhaps intangibility is not such a limiting factor, or current practices aimed at adding tangibility to services communications are working. However, without complete information on the nature of the marketing communications used for each of these firms during the test period, this conclusion remains speculative.
Alternately, perhaps service firms are making more efficient use of their limited MC budgets or the MC expenditure levels for many service firms are well below the point of marginal diminishing returns. If this is the case, the rate of change in sales given an incremental increase in MC would be predictably higher for service firms than for non-service firms spending closer to the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
Another explanation would be that MC may cost less for many service firms. Many service producers serve only limited geographic markets. This dictates emphasis on local rather than national MC. In some instances, the cost of local communications (eg, advertising, telemarketing) is lower than national communications. For example, many media have both local and national rates with the latter of the two frequently being higher. Consequently, some service firms may be able to accomplish more while spending less.
While the current effects of MC on sales among consumer services is greater than that of consumer non- services, the same does not hold true for the industrial services to non-services comparison. Though adding credence to the idea that services and non-services MC are not different in terms of effectiveness, this finding may create some confusion as well. Namely, why is there a difference among consumer firms but not among industrial firms?
Two possible explanations are offered. First, it is widely held that the typical MC mix among consumer firms can be substantially different from that of industrial firms in terms of the relative weights and contributions of the various elements of the MC mix. For instance, many industrial firms tend to rely more heavily on personal selling than advertising. Perhaps such differences can help explain why the comparisons yield different results.
Second, a comparison of the average current impact of MC for all four types of firms shows that the average current impact of MC is much lower for consumer non-services than for the three remaining groups. Therefore, the differences in the comparisons across consumer and industrial firms may be attributable solely to some unique characteristic of consumer non-service firms not identified in this study. This point is merely speculative but deserves further attention.
From the secondary analysis, the finding that the current effects of advertising on sales among consumer services is not different from that of non-services adds further support for the notion that services communications are not less effective. This would suggest that if true differences in MC effectiveness do actually exist, they may be attributable to some other element of the MC mix.
Alternately, this finding may be due to a unique artifact of the limited set of firms examined. For instance, the 52 service and non-service firms for which the data for the secondary analysis were obtained are among the top 100 advertisers in the United States. As such, one would expect firms spending at such levels to be operating somewhere close to the point of diminishing marginal returns. Perhaps significant differences are not readily apparent for firms advertising at such high levels regardless of the tangibility of the product.
In addition, many of the firms represented in the data set operate in rather intensely competitive industries (eg, beer, airline, bank cards, long-distance telephone services). As a result, such firms may be forced to spend beyond peak efficiency just to keep up with competition. Lack of significant differences may also be attributable to the small size of the data set (39 non-service firms and 13 service firms). A larger, more diverse set of data need be examined before any conclusions can be reached on this particular issue.
Another general finding of this study was that the carryover of MC effects is not different among service or non- service firms regardless of the market served. The same results were obtained for both total MC as well as advertising alone. This adds even further credence to the notion that services MC are not any less effective in the short- or long-term.
But why would MC have a greater impact on sales in the short run for consumer services but not in the long run? Perhaps the real problem with intangibility occurs over the long run rather than the short run. For instance, perhaps intangibility makes long-term storage and recall of service attributes more difficult. Or, perhaps intangibility hinders evaluations of service quality more so than product quality.
Another possible explanation for the observed contrast in effects lies in potential differences in purchase cycles. Perhaps some types of consumer non-services are purchased more or less often than some types of services. As a result, the observed difference in the duration of MC between service and non-service firms may be attributable to the length of time between purchases. Additional data would be required to fully explicate the nature of these situational effects.
Should services marketers be spending relatively less on communications than their non-services counterparts? Overall, the results from this study suggest two implications for promotional budgeting. First, decision makers in service firms should not necessarily spend less on MC than their non-service counterparts. By spending less, service firms could experience a decrease in both short- and long-term sales. To the contrary, due to the potential for higher relative effectiveness, some consumer service firms may wish to increase expenditures, at least to the point of diminishing marginal returns.
Second, if differences in short or long-term effectiveness do exist, they are likely to be attributable to elements of the MC mix other than advertising. Consequently, managers should carefully monitor and assess the MC mix to identify communication components having the most impact on current sales results and budget accordingly. Based on the results of this study advertising remains a valid component of the promotional mix.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Given these exploratory results, additional research on this topic may offer pragmatic insights. This study is representative of a 'natural' experimental design. As a result, complete closure was not obtained for many extraneous variables. Future research would benefit by using 'true' experimental designs to eliminate many possible sources of extraneous influence.
In addition, future research in this area would benefit from a direct analysis of the impact of varying intensities and types of MC activities on product sales. For example, by analyzing the impact of frequency as well as the content of specific advertisements for each firm, the effectiveness of specific communications strategies can be examined and compared. This should result in less speculative conclusions. Given that purchase cycles of non- services as a whole may differ from services, future research should consider purchase cycles as well.
Research examining the differences among the various types of services and the various levels of tangibility for different types of services may also prove enlightening. Specific characteristics of the service offering could be investigated to identify possible 'characteristic clusters' that evince tangibility. To the extent that these generalizations are possible, service marketers would then have a better understanding of focal images and cues to use in their MC.
Also, future research should further investigate the impact of total marketing communications as well as each individual component of the communications mix (ie, sales promotion, advertising, personal selling efforts, publicity). Finally, there is a need to obtain a better understanding and explanation for the differences between consumer and industrial marketing communication effectiveness as it relates to both services and non-services.
作者: 尽人事听天命 时间: 2018-10-7 22:04
补牙那篇827的库里有～
作者: hajimalikaze 时间: 2018-10-7 22:14
第10题，确定是逆时针吗？因为 转了6 pie的话， 半径为4的那个，转了3/4, 逆时针不是应该指向 数字1吗？顺时针才是3啊
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-8 08:42
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hearing-colors-tasting-shapes/?print=true
MIND
Hearing Colors, Tasting Shapes
People with synesthesia—whose senses blend together—are providing valuable clues to understanding the organization and functions of the brain
By Edward M. Hubbard, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran on September 1, 2006
When Matthew Blakeslee shapes hamburger patties with his hands, he experiences a vivid bitter taste in his mouth. Esmerelda Jones (a pseudonym) sees blue when she listens to the note C sharp played on the piano; other notes evoke different hues—so much so that the piano keys are actually color-coded. And when Jeff Coleman looks at printed black numbers, he sees them in color, each a different hue. Blakeslee, Jones and Coleman are among a handful of otherwise normal people who have synesthesia. They experience the ordinary world in extraordinary ways and seem to inhabit a mysterious no-man's-land between fantasy and reality. For them the senses—touch, taste, hearing, vision and smell—get mixed up instead of remaining separate.
第四篇，我看半天真是搞不懂在干什么，说科学家认为一个sy什么的是fakery的，然后后面要说不是的，然后就开始介绍实验，接下来就出现了red5s black5s,black2s,green,triangle,我把我能记得的都写出来了，大家加油考古吧！问题也都是和实验细节有关的
Modern scientists have known about synesthesia since 1880, when Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, published a paper in Natureon the phenomenon. But most have brushed it aside as fakery, an artifact of drug use or a mere curiosity. About seven years ago, however, we and others began to uncover brain processes that could account for synesthesia. Along the way, we also found new clues to some of the most mysterious aspects of the human mind, such as the emergence of abstract thought and metaphor.
A common explanation of synesthesia is that the affected people are simply experiencing childhood memories and associations. Maybe a person had played with refrigerator magnets as a child, and the number 5 was red and 6 was green. This theory does not answer why only some people retain such vivid sensory memories, however. You might think of cold when you look at a picture of an ice cube, but you probably do not feel cold, no matter how many encounters you may have had with ice and snow during your youth.
Another prevalent idea is that synesthetes are merely being metaphorical when they describe the note C sharp as red or say that chicken tastes pointy—just as you and I might speak of a loud shirt or sharp cheddar cheese. Our ordinary language is replete with such sense-related metaphors, and perhaps synesthetes are just especially gifted in this regard.
We began trying to find out whether synesthesia is a genuine sensory experience in 1999. This deceptively simple question had plagued researchers in the field for decades. One natural approach is to start by asking the subjects outright: Is this just a memory, or do you actually see the color as if it were right in front of you? When we asked this question, we did not get very far. Some subjects did respond, Oh, I see it perfectly clearly. But a more frequent reaction was, I kind of see it, kind of dont or No, it is not like a memory. I see the number as being clearly red, but I also know it isnt; it's black. So it must be a memory, I guess.
To determine whether an effect is truly perceptual, psychologists often use a simple test called pop-out or segregation. If you look at a set of tilted lines scattered amid a forest of vertical lines, the tilted lines stand out. Indeed, you can instantly segregate them from the background and group them mentally to form, for example, a separate triangular shape. Similarly, if most of a background's elements were green dots and you were told to look for red targets, the red ones would pop out. On the other hand, a set of black 2's scattered among 5's of the same color almost blend in [see box on page 81]. It is hard to discern the 2's without engaging in an item-by-item inspection of numbers, even though any individual number is just as clearly different from its neighbors as a tilted line is from a straight line. We thus may conclude that only certain primitive, or elementary, features, such as color and line orientation, can provide a basis for grouping. More complex perceptual tokens, such as numbers, cannot.
We wondered what would happen if we showed the mixed numbers to synesthetes who experience, for instance, red when they see a 5 and green with a 2. We arranged the 2's so that they formed a triangle.
P2: 研究者为了要证实这种症状是否是真是假，所以就用pop-out方法做了实验来证明。原理是这样的：既然Synaesthetic的人自称自己看到黑色的5会变成红色，那么在一堆黑色数字2当中放几个黑色数字5，这种人应该可以很快找出5来，因为5会变成红色，很快的浮现。而一般人因为2和5长得蛮像的，而且又都是黑色，所以不好辨认。结果显示90%的Synaesthetic患者果然马上就辨认出来5（比例比没有Synaesthetic症状的人高得多）。这个实验结果显示这些人是真的有Synaesthetic这个症状（此处出现了考题考这个对比的内容） （S容易辨认出来，普通人很难辨认出来）
When we conducted these tests with volunteers, the answer was crystal clear. Unlike normal subjects, synesthetes correctly reported the shape formed by groups of numbers up to 90 percent of the time (exactly as nonsynesthetes do when the numbers actually have different colors). This result proves that the induced colors are genuinely sensory and that synesthetes are not just making things up. It is impossible for them to fake their success.
作者: ScarlettDeng 时间: 2018-10-8 11:21
24.美国语言 原文感觉以下这篇很像 https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/12/science/earliest-americans-arrived-in-3-waves-not-1-dna-study-finds.html
Earliest Americans Arrived in Waves, DNA Study Finds
North and South America were first populated by three waves of migrants from Siberia rather than just a single migration, say researchers who have studied the whole genomes of Native Americans in South America and Canada.
Some scientists assert that the Americas were peopled in one large migration from Siberia that happened about 15,000 years ago, but the new genetic research shows that this central episode was followed by at least two smaller migrations from Siberia, one by people who became the ancestors of today’s Eskimos and Aleutians and another by people speaking Na-Dene, whose descendants are confined to North America. The research was published online on Wednesday in the journal Nature.
后来有个Green博士由此提出一个理论（好像与上面是承接关系，不是转折）：3个种族的人immigrate过来，3个语言。Green博士提出这些语言是来源三个不同的语言种族，可能是因为他们的migration貌似。后来作者就说，G说的三个语言即使是对的，后面更详细的信息的得出也不大可能解释现实，因为基因的检测不符合他的理论。因为基因的检测不符合他的理论。
The finding vindicates a proposal first made on linguistic grounds by Joseph Greenberg, the great classifier of the world’s languages. He asserted in 1987 that most languages spoken in North and South America were derived from the single mother tongue of the first settlers from Siberia, which he called Amerind. Two later waves, he surmised, brought speakers of Eskimo-Aleut and of Na-Dene, the language family spoken by the Apache and Navajo.
But many linguists who specialize in American languages derided Dr. Greenberg’s proposal, saying they saw no evidence for any single ancestral language like Amerind. “American linguists made up their minds 25 years ago that they wouldn’t support Greenberg, and they haven’t changed their mind one whit,” said Merritt Ruhlen, a colleague of Dr. Greenberg, who died in 2001.
The new DNA study is based on gene chips that sample the entire genome and presents a fuller picture than earlier studies, which were based on small regions of the genome like the Y chromosome or mitochondrial DNA. Several of the mitochondrial DNA studies had pointed to a single migration.
A team led by David Reich of Harvard Medical School and Dr. Andres Ruiz-Linares of University College London reported that there was a main migration that populated the entire Americas. They cannot date the migration from their genomic data but accept the estimate by others that the migration occurred around 15,000 years ago. This was in the window of time that occurred after the melting of great glaciers that blocked passage from Siberia to Alaska, and before the rising waters at the end of the last ice age submerged Beringia, the land bridge between them.
They also find evidence for two further waves of migration, one among Na-Dene speakers and the other among Eskimo-Aleut, again as Dr. Greenberg predicted. But whereas Dr. Greenberg’s proposal suggested that three discrete groups of people were packed into the Americas, the new genome study finds that the second and third waves mixed in with the first. Eskimos inherit about half of their DNA from the people of the first migration and half from a second migration. The Chipewyans of Canada, who speak a Na-Dene language, have 90 percent of their genes from the first migration and some 10 percent from a third.
It is not clear why the Chipewyans and others speak a Na-Dene language if most of their DNA is from Amerind speakers. Dr. Ruiz-Linares said a minority language could often dominate others in the case of conquest; an example of this is the ubiquity of Spanish in Latin America.
If the genetics of the early migrations to the Americas can be defined well enough, it should in principle be possible to match them with their source populations in Asia. Dr. Greenberg had argued on linguistic grounds that the Na-Dene language family was derived from Ket, spoken by the Ket people in the Yenisei valley of Siberia. But Dr. Reich said there was not yet enough genomic data from Asia or the Americas to make these links. His samples of Na-Dene and Ket DNA did not match, but the few Ket samples he had may have become mixed with DNA from people of other ethnicities, so the test, in his view, was inconclusive.
The team’s samples of Native American genomes were drawn mostly from South America, with a handful from Canada. Samples from tribes in the United States could not be used because the existing ones had been collected for medical reasons and the donors had not given consent for population genetics studies, Dr. Ruiz-Linares said. Native Americans in the United States have been reluctant to participate in inquiries into their origins. The Genographic Project of the National Geographic Society wrote recently to all federally recognized tribes in the United States asking for samples, but only two agreed to give them, said Spencer Wells, the project director.
Interracial marriage — or admixture, as geneticists call it — may have distorted earlier efforts to trace ancestry because subjects assumed to be American may have had European or other DNA admixed in their genomes. Dr. Reich and his colleagues have developed a method to define the racial origin of each segment of DNA and have found that on average 8.5 percent of Native American DNA belongs to other races. They then screened these admixed sections out of their analysis.
Archaeologists who study Native American history are glad to have the genetic data but also have reservations, given that several of the geneticists’ conclusions have changed over time. “This is a really important step forward but not the last word,” said David Meltzer of Southern Methodist University, noting that many migrations may not yet have shown up in the genetic samples. Michael H. Crawford, an anthropologist at the University of Kansas, said the paucity of samples from North America and from coastal regions made it hard to claim a complete picture of early migrations has been attained.
[size=1.0625]“Sometimes the statisticians make wonderful interpretations, but you have to be very guarded,” he said.
[size=1.0625]The geneticists’ finding of a single main migration of people who presumably spoke a single language at the time confirms Dr. Greenberg’s central idea that most American languages are descended from a single root, even though the genetic data cannot confirm the specific language relationships he described.
[size=1.0625]“Many linguists put down Greenberg as rubbish and don’t believe his publications,” Dr. Ruiz-Linares said. But he considers his study a substantial vindication of Dr. Greenberg. “It’s striking that we have this correspondence between the genetics and the linguistics,” he said.
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-8 22:19
第一篇是讲香味在广告中的应用，不是很长，一共两段，第一段大概是说香味的不同以及不是很好辨别之类的，第二段完全记不得了，应该有考古。题目中有一道是问相较于相较于香味的应用，其他两种广告方式（实在记不起来了，类似于听觉、视觉什么的吧）不同之处在于哪里，这个原文第一段直接有定位；还有一道是说在选线中哪个场景顾客会更无法分辨出那个味道（背景是文章里写了人们倾向于对着黄色的东西分不出柠檬的味道而不是其他颜色的，其实是说光凭味觉本身很难辨别，好像只能辨别出50-60%什么的），选项有绿色的东西分辨出pine味道，wheat的照片闻出咖啡的味道，automobile的照片里分辨出leather的味道（其他的都是更简单的选项）；
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1329599-1-1.html
JOURNAL ARTICLE
Does It Matter If It Smells? Olfactory Stimuli as Advertising Executional Cues
Pam Scholder Ellen and Paula Fitzgerald Bone
Journal of Advertising
Vol. 27, No. 4 (Winter, 1998), pp. 29-39
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4189089
Page Count: 11
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-783228-1-1.html
作者: nowhere! 时间: 2018-10-9 07:27
感恩大家的辛苦奉献～
作者: Basquiat 时间: 2018-10-9 08:56
顶！谢谢各位好人。
作者: gmat9月过过过 时间: 2018-10-9 10:47
感谢分享！想问下相似库是啥
作者: ScarlettDeng 时间: 2018-10-9 15:33
46.补牙，在今年0818库里有
四十六、补牙
【本月原始】Amenzai
另外一篇比较偏mechanical engineering领域，先是说补牙的填充物会有什么内部的压力可能导致牙齿裂缝，后来又讲到engineering领域这些内部压力是有帮助的，再后来又带出了一系列可以直接测量这些压力的好处。
【本月原始】boweili115
另外一个讲的是一个stress的好处，第一段很短就说dental filling的material实际上有很多risk，因为stress会可能fracture你的teeth，但是也有好处。第二段讲stress的好处，举了一个汽车零部件上一种做工故意加一种material这样这种negative stress实际上可以让product更结实。但是要确定怎么更好利用这种 stress需要知道什么direct measurement。第三段讲关于什么三个trends，不太记得了，第三段看的有点云里雾里的。
【考古】
【本月原始】bella806
一篇是讲residual stress, 说是dental filling的时候会让人有stress，然后第二段直接跳到manufacture material， 第三段讲现在的material有哪些trends，这篇时间不多了，没怎么看明白，希望有人能考古
【考古】
【本月原始】nixiaoming
补牙会造成一种xxx stress，这种stress可能导致骨折等等，因此很多人觉得应该避免。
其实很难避免，而且这种stress是有益的......科学家现在的进步是可以直接的测出stress是多少了。
这种进步是很重要的，主要有三个原因...
【本月原始】lonaysta
补牙那个，时间不够看的不仔细。第一段说补牙需要压力，这种压力会导致牙裂开，但是stress不可避免。第二段说了一堆stress的好处，段末提了新技术发现了direct measurement for the stress（有题）。第三段说了一堆trend，好像第一个是有题的。
【本月原始】fionaleechase
阅读 开篇讲dental filling has stress that could lead to breakage 然后才入正题说金属加工很难避免这种stress有些情况还会故意introduce这种stress，然后举例说明汽车的某个部件故意这么加工来limit cracks 然后讲现在的科学家有能力精确度量和计算这种stress。第三段讲这种精确度量计算能力的重要性有3 － 1是很多新材料例如半导体的出现，跟有lore可循的打铁铸剑不一样新材料的锻造工艺没有历史上的lore，需要精确计算。2是以往需要估算weight bearing structure的stress阀值，所以要多留好几倍的承载量，现在能够精确计算了，可以省材料 （这句直接回答一道题）3很多新的电子器件都非常小，需要这种计算能力。
【考古】
本月原始
(by ZIyu_Chen )
P1一种residual stress存在于某种材料里，人们知道了这件事很担忧，想着试图怎样减少它以提高安全性
P2转折，其实这种stress是好的，介绍它的原理，然后最后提到它的 direct measurement 有怎样的好处，减少不断地试错带来的浪费啊之类的
P3用它的广泛运用证明它真的好！介绍了三种应用
悦读菌考古版
V1
另外有一篇关于对于stress的new measurement的研究。为了探讨和measure人类对于stress的身体反应，科学家采用另外一种类似测量弹簧弹性的new method来improve原先traditional measurement method的weakness。基本都是细节题，主要是回原文定位。
V2
大概说一种stress，人们觉得这种stress太高就不好，因此科学家就想办法怎么不要使他升高。突然转折。。。说有一点的stress会使人怎么怎么好，可以用在treatment里面。。。之后一堆生词我就懵逼了。。。希望大家不要遇到这篇，太难了，完全看不懂
还有一篇是说residual stresses 这篇都是生词 我不太记得了很长一篇，
另外有一篇是关于STRESS的，共三段，第二段讲了目前关于stress的方法和不足，第三段讲了三种新的关于stress的方法，记得不太全囧。
residual stress 跟机经差不多，但是生词挺多的，读的过程有点困难，其中一道题提到author会support哪个观点，选项有关于nontraditional的（阅读过程中完全没印象），residual stress的引进方法，这一些细节有些在最后一段讲它应用的趋势，小伙伴们注意！！！
阅读碰到了redisual stress,确认以下是原文The average person is likely to feelmildly alarmed on being told that dental fillings contain locked-in stresses.We all have a somewhat hazy不清楚的 understanding that stress leads tofracture and can vaguely recall dramatic instances of stress-related failures.Thus we are likely to feel that all material stresses are without redeeming挽回的 value and should, if possible, be eliminated.
A truer picture of the behavior ofmaterials is both more complicated and more interesting. It turns out that itis difficult to work a rigid material without introducing permanent internalstresses. Most common manufacturing operations, such as turning, grinding, and peening,can set up internal stresses, and many familiar objects are subject to them,including dental fillings, computer chips, and pipelines.Butthese residual stresses can be beneficial as well as harmful. Indeed,manufacturers sometimes go to great lengths to introduce them. Manystress-related effects and recipes for obtaining them have long been known toartisans. What is new is the ability tomeasure the stress fields directly rather than inferring their nature fromwarpage and breakage. Several trends in engineering design make this analyticalcompetence important.
One of the trends is the proliferationof nontraditional materials. The best way to work a sword or to coil绕成圈 a spring弹簧 may be known, but no comparable body oflore知识 exists for ceramic transducers陶瓷转换器 or semiconductor wafers半导体晶片 or compositeairfoils复合材料机翼. Asecond trend is the trimming of safety margins修正安全边际. Bridges andother load-bearing structures have traditionally been built with large safetyfactors, but the lavish过分给予的,大量生产的 use ofmaterials required by this practice is increasingly uneconomic（原文在这里有改动，给了一些比较具体的数字）; in the case of objects that must belofted高高地升到空中 into space, a large safety factor istotally impractical. A third trend is the reduction in scale of many engineeredsystems. Residual stresses play a much more important role in the microscopicmetal微观金属 interconnects on the surface of a chip缺口 than they do in a thick electrical cable电缆.
题目
1, What does the “analytical competence”refer to?
1. A) The ability to measure the stress field.
2. B) The ability to infer from warpage and breakage.
2, Which of the follow is a benefit ofthe improved measurement?
1. A) Allow structures to be built more economically.
2. B) 忘了
3, Which of the following about residualstress is supported by the argument?
1. A) Dental filling is beneficial
2. B) 忘了
生词：
residual stress：残余应力
dental filling：牙齿填充物，填充蛀牙的材料
peening：锤打（金属表面）
artisan：工匠
lore: 学问、知识、传说
warpage是warp的名词：翘曲、扭曲
breakage是break的名词：断裂
proliferation：普遍出现、扩散
作者: hermioneecho 时间: 2018-10-9 16:45
想问一下，玻璃工艺那篇Integrity的近义词到底选completeness, conformity, high quality, soundness, complexity里的哪一个呀，感觉好几个都有道理，考古也是有好几种说法
作者: ScarlettDeng 时间: 2018-10-9 17:30
32.Tempered glass 的相似文章
Architects and designers have begun using glass to make load-bearing structures. Glass is very strong but starts to weaken the instant it is made. Even one gas molecule can break a silicon-oxygen bond, generating a tiny fissure that grows under stress. Protective coatings can help avoid new cracks but can affect transparency, the main reason for using glass in the first place.
Thus, structural glass is often strengthened by tempering, which compresses the surface so that more force is needed for the cracks to grow. Heat tempering, the process most often used, takes advantage of the fact that when glass cools slowly it shrinks and becomes denser. In this process, a sheet's exterior is cooled rapidly, keeping the surface less dense. As the hot glass inside cools slowly and shrinks to a denser structure, it pulls the surface inward and compresses it. Tempered glass can still break, but it breaks into more and smaller pieces than untempered glass, which reduces the chance of causing injury.
Tempering alone is usually not enough, however. A primary concern when building with glass is what happens if a component breaks. Unlike other materials, glass does not deform or otherwise give advance warning of failure, so if breakage occurs, maintaining the integrity of the structure is paramount. Lamination helps address this issue: glass sheets are bonded with thin interlayers made of plastic or other polymers; should a glass layer break, the interlayers keep the structure together. But lamination makes fabricating glass for structural uses very difficult. Because cutting into tempered glass causes it to break, each layer of the glass to be laminated must be polished and drilled for connecting fittings before being tempered and bonded together.
Some builders seeking to make glass structures unencumbered by metal or other materials are investigating less common kinds of glass. Conventional glass, called “soda-lime," expands when heated, so welding introduces stresses that can lead to failure. Components made of a less expandable glass could be welded together, forming, in effect, a continuous piece. Other builders are using adhesives to join glass pieces. Unfortunately, adhesives' long-term strength and reliability have not been established.
作者: ScarlettDeng 时间: 2018-10-9 22:16
39.patent
考古 类似文章和狗
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-322579-1-1.html
阅读IT界的申请专利问题可能引发很多问题
还一篇讲说专利问题，首段讲IT界的申请专利问题可能引发很多问题，下面三段从三个方面讲了问题所在，第一点，科技发展日新月异，专利也层出不穷，发明一项科技专利的同时要保证这专利以前没有申请过，这种搜索工作过于麻烦。
第二点，评定专利的人往往不具备SCIENCE的专业知识和背景，因此可能过高（过低）评价很多其实很烂（很好）的专利（这段有类比题，我选了KITCHEN APPLIANCE那选项）。
第三点，科技专利往往是一群人的智慧，而非个人，而专利权往往授予的是个人。
*现在的patent process对software engineers来说不利，原因有三,一段一个，文章容易。
* The costs of determining if a particular piece of software infringes any issued patents is too high and the results are too uncertain.
* Even if a software developer hires a patent attorney to perform a clearance search and provide a clearance opinion there is still no guarantee that the search will be complete. Different patents and published patent applications may use different words to describe the same concepts and thus patents that cover different aspects of the invention may not show up in a search. A simple clearance search might cost $US 2,000. A more comprehensive clearance search might cost $20,000 and up.[citation needed] This is often beyond the means of many inventors.
* Most software patents cover either trivial inventions or inventions that would have been obvious to persons of ordinary skill in the art at the time the invention was made.
* Patent examiners rarely have a comprehensive knowledge of the specific technologies disclosed in the patent applications they examine. This is in large part due to the enormous number of micro-niches in the software field and the relatively limited number of examiners. As a consequence, patents are sometimes allowed on inventions that appear to be trivial extensions of existing technologies.[citation needed] Others debate that these inventions are truly obvious without the benefit of hindsight.[14]
* If any member of the public disagrees with a patent office's granting of a patent, they can challenge the validity of the patent once it issues. This is done by an reexamination in the US and an opposition proceeding in Europe. Other countries have similar proceedings. Currently about 5% of all issued patents in Europe are opposed.[15] .
§ Granted patents may be very different from the published applications, so the published application may only serve as a guide to the final scope of protection.
作者: 小小小小白 时间: 2018-10-10 00:12
Mark一下！
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-10 11:52
Railways and slime moulds
A life of slime
Network-engineering problems can be solved by surprisingly simple creatures
Jan 21st 2010
FROM adhesives that mimic the feet of geckos to swimsuits modelled on shark skin, biologically inspired design has taken off in recent times. Copying nature's ideas allows people to harness the power of evolution to come up with clever products. Now a group of researchers has taken this idea a step further by using an entire living organism—a slime mould—to solve a complex problem. In this case, the challenge was to design an efficient rail network for the city of Tokyo and its outlying towns.
Slime moulds are unusual critters—neither animal, nor plant nor fungus. If they resemble anything, it is a colonial amoeba. Physarum polycephalum, the species in question, consists of a membrane-bound bag of protoplasm and, unusually, multiple nuclei. It can be found migrating across the floor of dark, damp, northern-temperate woodlands in search of food such as bacteria. It can grow into networks with a diameter of 25cm.
When P. polycephalum is foraging, it puts out protrusions of protoplasm, creates nodes and branches, and grows in the form of an interconnected network of tubes. As it explores the forest floor, it must constantly trade off the cost, efficiency and resilience of its expanding network.
Since the purpose of this activity is to link food sources together and to transport nutrients around the creature, Atsushi Tero at Hokkaido University in Japan and his colleagues wondered if slime-mould transport networks bore any resemblance to human ones. As they report in Science, they built a template with 36 oat flakes (a favoured food source) placed to represent the locations of cities in the region around Tokyo. They put P. polycephalum on Tokyo itself, and watched it go.
They found that many of the links the slime mould made bore a striking resemblance to Tokyo's existing rail network. For P. polycephalum had not simply created the shortest possible network that could connect all the cities, but had also included redundant connections that allow the creature (and the real rail network) to have resilience to the accidental breakage of any part of it. P. polycephalum's network, in other words, had similar costs, efficiencies and resiliencies to the human version.
How the creature does this is unknown, but Mark Fricker of Oxford University, who is one of Dr Tero's colleagues, speculates that the forces generated by protoplasm pulsating back-and-forth through the multinuclear cell are interpreted and used to determine which routes to reinforce, and which connections to trim.
Tokyo's is not the first transport network to be modelled in this way. A study published in December by Andrew Adamatzky and Jeff Jones of the University of the West of England used oat flakes to represent Britain's principal cities. Slime moulds modelled the motorway network of the island quite accurately, with the exception of the M6/M74 into Scotland (the creatures chose to go through Newcastle rather than past Carlisle).
Of course, neither Dr Tero nor Dr Adamatzky is suggesting that rail and road networks should be designed by slime moulds. What they are proposing is that good and complex solutions can emerge from simple rules, and that this principle might be applied elsewhere. The next thing is to discover and use these rules to enable other networks to self-organise in an “intelligent” fashion without human intervention—for example, to link up a swarm of robots exploring a dangerous environment, so that they can talk to each other and relay information back to base. The denizens of Carlisle, meanwhile, may wonder what objection slime moulds have towards their fine city.
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-10 15:55
JOURNAL ARTICLE
A Cretaceous-Tertiary Mass Extinction?
John C. Briggs
BioScience
Vol. 41, No. 9 (Oct., 1991), pp. 619-624 (6 pages)
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1311699
科学家然后开始研究热带的shadow-water里面marine 动物的灭绝，发现热带海水里的灭绝率高于其他地区，并导致了在此灭绝之后，热带海水里的动物存留下来的都是primitive的。
Among the marine plankton species, it was the smaller, more generalized, or primitive forms that survived the extinction, whereas the large, specialized species died out (Keller 1989, Lipps 1986). The generalized species lived in the cooler waters of high latitudes and, when the tropical species were eliminated, the primitive forms moved toward the equator to take their places (Gerstel et al. 1986). In other marine groups with good fossil records, such as the hermatypic corals (Stehli and Wells 1971), hivalve molluscs (Hecht and Agan 1972), and benthic foraminiferans (Durazzi and Stehli 1973), the younger more advanced genera are found in the tropics, whereas the more ancient genera were found at higher latitudes. In other groups, such as fishes and cetaceans, whose fossil history is not as well known, the higher-latitude representatives often have a simpler, more primitive morphology.
The K/T extinctions preferentially eliminated the tropical shelf and epipelagic organisms. This set of extinctions created an ecological vacuum, which was gradually populated by simpler, eurythermic organisms from higher latitudes and possibly from deeper water and other refuges. I have suggested that this process of succession by older, more primitive forms set back the evolutionary clock to an earlier time (Briggs 1990). So, instead of evolutionary benefits, the K/T extinctions resulted in evolutionary disaster. Depending on the habitat, it took the marine world from 3 million years to more than 25 million years to recover its late Cretaceous diversity.
文章中说首先很多人都将白垩纪生物灭绝的重点放在extinction of dinosaurs, 然后发现恐龙的灭绝既不是sudden也不是catastrophic, 而是逐渐灭绝的，尤其是在最后的3000年内。
3、highlight那段关于1%的
说明了海洋生物的灭绝对物种多样性的影响
The magnitude of the K/T extinctions has been consistently exaggerated. Recent estimates range from a kill of half the species on Earth on up to 80%. Such estimates have no scientific basis. Some 98% of living species belong to groups (terrestrial arthropods, vascular plants, and nematodes) for which we have virtually no extinction information. They may have passed through the K/T boundary relatively unscathed. Most of the high-latitude and deep-water marine groups lost relatively few species. The loss of species diversity on a global basis could have been less than 1%.
作者: backuu 时间: 2018-10-11 11:32
同意。。不知道正确是哪个
作者: backuu 时间: 2018-10-11 11:37
同想问..
作者: XYZCC 时间: 2018-10-11 16:42
顶！
作者: Vanishlonely 时间: 2018-10-12 10:04
感觉是completeness吧
作者: bj2004 时间: 2018-10-12 13:32
感谢分享
作者: 舒杂 时间: 2018-10-12 20:44
45是不是补牙那个~
作者: 尽人事听天命 时间: 2018-10-12 21:56
45一定是补牙那个，内应力
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-13 15:23
JOURNAL ARTICLE
Authenticating Ancient Marble Sculpture
Stanley V. Margolis
Scientific American
Vol. 260, No. 6 (JUNE 1989), pp. 104-111
Published by: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/24987292
Page Count: 8
Authenticating Ancient Marble Sculpture
Stone sculpture is notoriously difficult to prove genuine. As prices for such works skyrocket, geochemists are being called in to help settle questions that art history and a connoisseur's eye cannot resolve
By Stanley V. Margolis
第一段：博物馆的人怀疑一个叫Kursos (大概这样写)的艺术品（其实是一个statue, marble figure, 就是大理石雕像）不是真品，于是请Geochemical 的人来鉴定。Geochemists先identify从哪来的，什么quarry。但是不能确定，只能初步认为是怎样，但是还是不能确定具体可以追溯到什么年代。 （黑体字有题目）
Usually the first step in authenticating a work of sculpture is to identify the quarry from which the stone came. This can often be done with great precision, because the isotopic makeup of marble varies significantly from one site to another. When isotope values overlap from one quarry to another, further chemical tests can tell the quarries apart. The kouros marble was analyzed by our research group, which included William S. Showers of North Carolina State University at Raleigh and Norman Herz of the University of Georgia, the latter an expert in the provenance of ancient marble. According to Herz, the kouros marble probably came from the ancient Cape Vathy quarries on the island of Thasos. These quarries were the oldest source of dolomitic marble in the area, and large kouroi were produced in Thasos in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.
第三段是把两个东西的C12 和C10的ratio作比较 得出一个结论（结论有考题）
第三段：Then, geochemist开始辨别crust里的carbon-18 dioxide-12和什么什么的carbon-14对比。发现ratio什么的不一样。
In the most crucial test we compared the ratio of oxygen 16 to oxygen 18 and that of carbon 12 to carbon 13 found in the calcite crust with the ratios found in the fresh dolomite from the interior. The ratios were similar and also resembled the ratios measured in dedolomitized dolomite found in nature. This finding ruled out the possibility that the calcite crust of the kouros had been artificially replicated or had precipitated out of groundwater. In either case the oxygen and carbon isotope values of the crust would have been very different from those of fresh dolomite. The most reasonable explanation for the calcite on the kouros is that it developed through centuries of weathering.
有一题问the thickness of the layer of calcitic，可以用来determine下面什么？文章定位最后一段，有说根据thickness只能推断出no more than多少年，no less than多少年，然后有个选项是the maximum and minimum year什么的。
还有一题好像是关于最后一句，科学家最后认定那个什么CLAY是authentic，选项说虽然不能推断出actual age，但可以证明它是真品。
The thickness of the calcite crust by itself does not indicate an exact age for the sculpted surface, because the rate of dedolomitization depends on many unknown variables: the length of burial, the composition of the burial soil and the chemistry of groundwater and rainfall at the burial site. From what is known about dedolomitization, the surface features of the Getty kouros are consistent with an age of no less than several centuries and no more than several millennia.
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-13 15:27
https://forum.chasedream.com/thread-1152413-1-1.html
JOURNAL ARTICLE
Residual Stresses in Materials
I. C. Noyan and J. B. Cohen
American Scientist
Vol. 79, No. 2 (March-April 1991), pp. 142-153 (12 pages)
Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Honor Society
https://www.jstor.org/stable/29774322
In a high-tech version of artisanship, engineers can manipulate an object’s internal stress fields to give it desired properties. The average person is likely to feel mildly alarmed on being told that dental fillings contain locked-in stresses. We all have a somewhat hazy understanding that stress leads to fracture and can vaguely recall dramatic instances of stress-related failures. Thus we are likely to feel that all material stresses are without redeeming value and should, if possible, be eliminated.
A truer picture of the behavior of materials is both more complicated and more interesting. It turns out that it is difficult to work a rigid material without introducing permanent internal stresses. Most common manufacturing operations, such as turning, grinding, and heat treatment, surface hardening, and welding, can set up internal stresses, and many familiar objects are subject to them, including dental fillings, computer chips, and pipelines. But these residual stresses can be beneficial as well as harmful. Indeed, manufacturers sometimes go to great lengths to introduce them. Many stress-related effects and recipes for obtaining them have long been known to artisans. What is new is the ability to measure the stress fields directly rather than inferring their nature from war page and breakage. Several trends in engineering design make this analytical competence important.
One of the trends is the proliferation of nontraditional materials. The best way to work a sword or to coil a spring may be known, but no comparable body of lore exists for ceramic transducers or semiconductor wafers or composite air foils. A second trend is the trimming of safety margins. Bridges and other load-bearing structures have traditionally been built with large safety factors, but the lavish use of materials required by this practice is increasingly uneconomic (原文在这里有改动，给了一些比较具体的数字); in the case of objects that must be lofted into space, a large safety factor is totally impractical. A third trend is the reduction in scale of many engineered systems. Residual stresses play a much more important role in the microscopic metal interconnects on the surface of a chip than they do in a thick electrical cable.
题目
1, What does the “analytical competence” refer to?
A) The ability to measure the stress field.
B) The ability to infer from warpage and breakage.
2, Which of the follow is a benefit of the improved measurement?
A) Allow structures to be built more economically.
B) 忘了
3, Which of the following about residual stress is supported by the argument?
A) Dental filling is beneficial
B) 忘了
作者: calvinemp_ck 时间: 2018-10-13 16:39
作者: calvinemp_ck 时间: 2018-10-13 16:39
作者: billyisfragile! 时间: 2018-10-13 19:30
JOURNAL ARTICLE
How Climate Evolved on the Terrestrial Planets
James F. Kasting, Owen B. Toon and James B. Pollack
Scientific American
Vol. 258, No. 2 (FEBRUARY 1988), pp. 90-97
Published by: Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc.
How Climate Evolved on the Terrestrial Planets
Planets with temperate, earthlike climates were once thought to be rare in our galaxy. Mathematical models now suggest that if planets do exist outside the solar system, many of them might be habitable
By James F. Kasting, Owen B. Toon and James B. Pollack
The Faint-Young-Sun Paradox
Our interest in the role of carbon dioxide in the evolution of the earth, Mars and Venus had its roots in another cosmological puzzle relating to the origin of the earth: the faint- young-sun paradox. Virtually every model of stellar evolution indicates that the sun was between 25 and 30 percent dimmer when the solar system formed some 4.6 billion years ago than it is today. Since then the solar luminosity, or intensity, has apparently increased approximately linearly with time.
第一段第一句话说，3.8billion年前，太阳比现在dimmer（暗示太阳温度低），但是当时地球表面有液态水了。科学家觉得不可思议，因为按计算地球应该是冰封状态，所以提出了一个假设，就是greenhouse吸收了太阳的热量。如何证明是不是greenhouse，就说海洋中氢会分解成较轻和较重的两种同位素，较轻的氢同位素会挥发到space中，较重的会沉淀在海里。然后有一段啰嗦的逻辑过程，反正就是说测较轻的氢同位素含量就能知道当时是不是greenhouse，然后就说证明不是这样的。第二段就是第二个假设，就是说云少，反射太阳光少，所以吸收太阳热量多。为什么云少呢？因为当时陆地少，而陆地是提供云形成必须的颗粒物的，因此云少。有一题问文章第一句（就是太阳dimmer那句）和文章最后一句（云少所以吸热多）的关系，我选第一句提出现象，最后一句提出可能解释。还有题问3.8billion年前哪件事是must be true，好像5个选项都是与now对比的。
The paradox arises, as Carl Sagan and George H. Mullen of Cornell University pointed out about 15 years ago, when one realizes that if the earth's early atmosphere was the same as it is now, a weak sun would have resulted in an ice-covered earth until about two billion years ago. Yet the planet did not freeze. In fact, evidence from sedimentary rocks indicates that the earth has had liquid oceans since at least 3.8 billion years ago, when the geological record begins. Moreover, life has been present for at least the past 3.5 billion years, demonstrating that the earth's surface has never been entirely frozen during that time. (Water can remain fluid as long as the temperature is between zero and 374 degrees c.; it boils and evaporates at 100 degrees C. at sea level today but will stay liquid at higher temperatures if the atmospheric pressure is increased.)
第二种是关于cloud的理论，此段短——和水大概是正相关的变化。。。失忆了
Sagan and Mullen realized that the paradox disappears if one assumes the earth's atmosphere has changed in the course of time. For instance, if the young planet had fewer clouds than it has today, less of the sunlight that impinged on the earth would have been reflected back into space, and the planet would have been correspondingly warmer. Some 30 percent of the sunlight that currently reaches the top of the atmosphere is returned to space, most of it by clouds. A chillier earth might well have had fewer clouds but the geological record suggests the early earth was actually warmer than today's. Parts of the planet are covered with glaciers now, but there is no evidence of similar glaciation before
about 2.7 billion years ago.
A more probable explanation is that the greenhouse effect was more pronounced in the distant past. Sagan and Mullen suggested that ammonia (NH3), an efficient absorber of infrared, could have warmed the climate if the gas represented just 100 out of every million molecules of the air. Subsequent studies have shown, however, that the sun would have rapidly converted ammonia into the non greenhouse gases nitrogen and hydrogen unless it was continually resupplied to the atmosphere from the planet's surface.
Other investigations have focused on carbon dioxide, which sunlight does not readily decompose. Carbon dioxide is certainly abundant here; the amount now stored in the planet in carbonate rocks would exert a pressure of about 60 bars if it were released into the atmosphere. (One bar is equal to 14.5 pounds per square inch, the pressure at sea level. Today the earth's atmosphere contains about .0003 bar of carbon dioxide.) If just a few tenths of a bar of the stored carbon dioxide was originally present as a gas, its additional greenhouse warming would have compensated for the reduced sunlight.
第三段开始说一个叫Michael的学者说我算了算二氧化碳的含量得出了一个数据，比它多地球太热比它少地球太冷，我算的很精确；其他学者反驳说他的因果不对，实际是温度和二氧化碳互相制衡达到稳定
有个问题问Michael没有考虑到什么？我选的好像是没考虑到互相调节还是啥的
第三段就说一个人做实验 证明了 二氧化碳浓度的什么rate确实是互相抵消的 然后再出来recent investigator说这个人错了，其实地球的二氧化碳浓度不是自己升高的，而是地球怎么样以后他被动升高的
The notion that higher carbon dioxide levels could have protected the early earth from freezing soon gave rise to a related idea: if the carbon dioxide level declined at a rate that precisely counteracted the increase in solar luminosity with time, the decline might account for the fact that the earth's temperature has always remained within reasonable limits. One investigator, Michael H. Hart of NASA, undertook to calculate such a compensatory rate.
Hart managed to work out a solution in which the levels of the gas declined approximately logarithmically with time, but his most interesting finding was that very few of his calculations succeeded. In other words, if the composition of the atmosphere had at any time changed at a rate different from his precise solution, the planet would have become unable to support life. If the carbon dioxide level had declined too slowly, the earth would have become a hothouse; if it had declined too quickly, the oceans would have frozen.
Hart did similar calculations for cases in which the distance between the earth and the sun was varied by small amounts. He found that if the earth had formed 5 percent closer to the sun, the atmosphere would have become so hot that the oceans would have evaporated, a condition known as a runaway greenhouse. Conversely, the planet would have encountered runaway glaciation if it had formed as little as 1 percent farther from the sun. Only in the relatively narrow range of orbits between .95 astronomical unit and 1.01 A. U. could one or the other of these climatic catastrophes be avoided. (One A.U. is the distance between the sun and the earth, or 149.6 million kilometers.) Hart termed this narrow band of orbital distances the continuously habitable zone (CHZ).
Hart's conclusions were unsettling because they suggested that the earth must have beaten extraordinary odds in avoiding the fate of Mars or Venus. Only within the past few years have investigators discovered the flaw in his hypothesis. A mathematical model developed by James C. G. Walker and Paul B. Hays of the University of Michigan and by one of us (Kasting) suggests that the changes in carbon dioxide concentration did not arise by sheer luck. Rather, carbon dioxide levels have probably fluctuated in response to changes in surface temperature. When the temperature goes up, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels decline, cooling the surface; when the surface cools, the abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases and warms the surface. The existence of such a negative-feedback loop means that the earth probably has never been in danger of undergoing either the runaway greenhouse or the runaway glaciation postulated by Hart.
作者: echo-LUO 时间: 2018-10-13 20:47
明天考，祈祷不好换库
作者: 我的芋头呢 时间: 2018-10-14 20:44
想问一下阅读jj什么时候看比较合适，看当月的还是换库后到考试前的。
作者: cxxxxxy 时间: 2018-12-3 17:18
mark
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