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[阅读小分队] 【Native Speaker每日综合训练—39系列】【39-11】 科技 hypnosis

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发表于 2014-7-21 22:53:10 | 显示全部楼层 |阅读模式
内容:cherry6891   编辑: cherry6891

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Part I: Speaker

Going Under Hypnosis Before Going into Surgery
lose your eyes, take a deep breath…
Imagine you are on a beach, hear the waves.
You are feeling very relaxed, very sleepy…
Hey wait. Not so fast.

I mean, you don’t want to fall into a hypnotic state just anywhere, right?

Interestingly, research published this week in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute shows there might be one place where the magic of hypnosis pays off: on the operating table.

The clinical study showed that women who went under hypnosis just before breast cancer surgery reported less pain, nausea, fatigue and emotional stress. More surprising, they required less anesthetic during surgery.

Psychologists hypnotized the patients for 15 minutes. Subjects were asked to close their eyes and imagine each muscle relaxing, as they were guided to their “special place”. The idea is that hypnosis redirects the patients' focus so deeply that they don’t feel the pain as much.
Hypnosis also led to less time in the O.R. which led to a surprising cost savings of about $700 per patient.

Source:
http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/b37568a3-e7f2-99df-39588ef5a9aaacc9/

[Rephrase 1, 1:28]

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 楼主| 发表于 2014-7-21 22:53:11 | 显示全部楼层
Part II: Speed

Hypnosis, Memory and the Brain
time2
Hypnosis has long been considered a valuable technique for recreating and then studying puzzling psychological phenomena. A classic example of this approach uses a technique known as posthypnotic amnesia (PHA) to model memory disorders such as functional amnesia, which involves a sudden memory loss typically due to some sort of psychological trauma (rather than to brain damage or disease). Hypnotists produce PHA by suggesting to a hypnotized person that after hypnosis he will forget particular things until he receives a “cancellation,” such as “Now you can remember everything.” PHA typically only happens when it is specifically suggested and it is much more likely to occur in those with high levels of hypnotic ability, or “high hypnotizable” people. Now a new study shows that this hypnotic state actually influences brain activity associated with memory.

High hypnotizable people with PHA typically show impaired explicit memory, or difficulty consciously recalling events or material targeted by the suggestion, and a dissociation between implicit and explicit memory, so that even though they can’t recall the forgotten information it continues to influence their behavior, thoughts and actions. The forgetting is reversible—when the suggestion is cancelled, their memories come flooding back. These last two features—the dissociation and reversibility—confirm that PHA is not the result of poor encoding of the memories or of normal forgetting, because the memories return as soon as PHA is cancelled. Rather, PHA reflects a temporary inability to retrieve information that is safely stored in memory. That makes it a useful tool for research. [253 words]

Time3
Researchers have used PHA as a laboratory analogue of functional amnesia because these conditions share several similar features. Case reports of functional amnesia, for instance, describe men and women who, following a traumatic experience such as a violent sexual assault or the death of a loved one, are unable to remember part or all of their personal past. However, as in PHA, they might still show “implicit” evidence of the forgotten events. For instance, they might unconsciously dial the phone number of a family member whom they can’t consciously recall. (In contrast, explicit memories are those we consciously have access to, such as remembering a childhood birthday or what you had for dinner last night.)  And, as suddenly as they lost their memories, they can just as suddenly recover them.

Forgetting in the Brain
But for the comparison between PHA and functional amnesia to be most meaningful, we need to know that they share underlying processes. One way to test this is to identify the brain activity patterns associated with PHA. In a groundbreaking study published in Neuron, neuroscientist Avi Mendelsohn and colleagues at the Weizmann Institute in Israel did just that using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). They carefully selected 25 people to participate in their experiment. Although all were susceptible to hypnosis, earlier testing had shown that half could respond to a PHA suggestion (labelled “the PHA group”) and half could not (the “non-PHA group”). In the Study session of their experiment, participants watched a 45-minute movie. One week later, in the Test session, participants returned to the laboratory and were hypnotized while they lay within the fMRI scanner. During hypnosis, people in both the PHA and non-PHA groups received a suggestion to forget the movie until they heard a specific cancellation cue.[295 words]

Time4
After hypnosis, participants’ memories were tested twice while the fMRI scanner recorded their brain activity. For Test 1, they were asked 40 questions about the content of the movie (for example, the actress knocked on her neighbor’s door on the way home) and 20 questions about the context in which they saw the movie (for instance, during the movie, the door to the study room was closed). These questions required a “yes” or “no” response. For Test 2, participants were asked the same 60 recognition questions, but first they heard the cue to cancel PHA. So Test 1 measured memory performance and brain activity while the PHA suggestion was in effect and Test 2 measured memory performance and brain activity after it was cancelled.

In Test 1 Mendelsohn and colleagues found that people in the PHA group (who could experience PHA) forgot more details from the movie than people in the non-PHA group (who could not experience PHA). But in Test 2, after the suggestion was cancelled, this memory loss was reversed. People in the PHA group correctly recognized just as many details from the movie as people in the non-PHA group. Somewhat surprisingly, however, the suggestion to forget was selective in its impact. Although people in the PHA group had difficulty remembering the content of the movie following the forget suggestion, they had no difficulty remembering the context in which they saw the movie.

This finding—that PHA temporarily disrupted some people’s ability to recall the past—echoes decades of hypnosis research. What is entirely new in Mendelsohn et al.’s study is their demonstration that PHA was associated with a specific pattern of brain activation. Consistent with what normally occurs in remembering, when people in the non-PHA group performed the recognition task and successfully remembered what happened in the movie, fMRI showed high levels of activity in areas responsible for visualizing scenes (the occipital lobes) and for analyzing verbally presented scenarios (the left temporal lobe). In stark contrast, when people in the PHA group performed the recognition task and failed to remember the content of the movie, fMRI showed little or no activity in these areas. Also, fMRI showed enhanced activity in another area (the prefrontal cortex) responsible for regulating activity in other brain areas.

So far, so good. For people in the PHA group, brain activation measured by fMRI correlated with the failure to remember. But what if reduced activation is always found in such people regardless of whether they are remembering or forgetting? We can rule this possibility out because people in the PHA group showed reduced activation only when they (unsuccessfully) answered questions about the content of the movie, not when they (successfully) answered questions about the context of the movie. Indeed, for the context questions, they showed the same activation as people in the non-PHA group. Perhaps then, the reduced activation reflects complete forgetting of the information, not just temporary suppression? We can rule this possibility out also because, in a neat reversal, people in the PHA group showed normal activation—just as those in the non-PHA group did—as soon as the suggestion was cancelled.[521 words]

Time5
Hypnosis Is Real
Mendelsohn et al.’s study is important because it demonstrates that hypnotic suggestions influence brain activity, not just behavior and experience. Hypnotic effects are real! This fact has been demonstrated clearly in earlier work, for instance, by psychologist David Oakley (University College London) and colleagues, who compared brain activation of genuinely hypnotized people given suggestions for leg paralysis with brain activation of people simply asked to fake hypnosis and paralysis.

This latest study is also important because it starts to specify the underlying brain processes, which we assume are shared by PHA and functional amnesia. Mendelsohn et al. argued that the brain activation seen in PHA reflects a dampening—some form of rapid, early inhibition of memory material—due to heightened activity in the prefrontal cortex.

But how does the suppression mechanism decide what to suppress? In this study, movie content but not movie context was influenced by PHA. Memories involve the “what,” “how,” “when” and “where” of an event interwoven together, such that distinctions between content and context may be blurred (for example, “Was the movie shot with a hand-held camera?”). To make such fine discriminations, the brain’s suppressor module presumably needs to process information at a sufficiently high level. Yet this module needs to act quickly, preconsciously suppressing activation of the information before it even enters awareness. Brain imaging technologies with superior temporal resolution to fMRI, such as magnetoencephalography (MEG), might help to resolve this seeming paradox of sophisticated, yet rapid, operations.[246 words]

Time6
We also wonder how the suppression mechanism in PHA relates to the vast array of forgetting in the laboratory and in the world? Whereas some forgetting is seen as strategic, effortful and conscious (say, suppression), other forgetting is seen as automatic, effortless and unconscious (say, repression). Having mapped the common features of PHA and functional amnesia, we now need to explore and compare in greater detail their common processes (such as strategy use, motivation, level of awareness).

Finally, the neural underpinnings of PHA will be even clearer when we incorporate its most important aspect in imaging studies—the dissociation between implicit and explicit memory. In PHA (and in functional amnesia) the person is unable to explicitly recall certain information, yet we see evidence of this material on implicit measures. For instance, a participant given PHA may fail to recall the word “doctor,” learned earlier, but will have no trouble completing the word fragment “d _ _ t _ r”. Mendelsohn et al. did not assess implicit memory. Rather, they tested recognition, which in a sense confounds explicit and implicit memory. We’d like to compare brain scans of a PHA group trying to explicitly recall the movie (they should show reduced activation, as above) with brain scans of the same group completing an implicit memory measure of the movie (they should show normal activation). This would be tricky to do—implicit measures of complex material such as movies and autobiographical memories are hard to find or construct. But it would contribute to a more complete neural picture of the processes involved in these fascinating forms of forgetting. [266]

source:
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hypnosis-memory-brain/

 楼主| 发表于 2014-7-21 22:53:12 | 显示全部楼层
Part III: Obstacle

The Neural Magic of Hypnotic Suggestion

A new review of the scientific literature studying hypnosis, in the journal Nature Reviews Neuroscience, by Oakley and Halligan, discusses the potential for hypnosis to provide insights into brain mechanisms involved in attention, motor control, pain perception, beliefs and volition and also to produce informative analogues of clinical conditions. This is a critical discussion as hypnosis is used as a psychological treatments and, recently, as an investigative tool in cognitive neuroscience.

An iconic vision of the menacing magician involves placing a hapless person from the audience into a hypnotic trance. Svengali. You are getting sleeeepy. A scam, right? Not so fast. According to to this new review, as well as our colleagues who study the brains of people who are prone to trancelike states, hypnosis is not necessarily hocus-pocus. The age-old practice profoundly alters neural circuits involved in perception and decision making, changing what people see, hear, feel, and believe to be true. Recent experiments led people who were hypnotized to “see” colors where there were none. Others lost the ability to make simple decisions. Some people looked at common English words and thought they were gibberish.

Some of the critical experiments were led by Amir Raz, a cognitive neuroscientist at McGill University in Montreal, who is an amateur magician. Raz wanted to do something really impressive that other neuroscientists could not ignore. So he hypnotized people and gave them the Stroop test. In this classic paradigm, you are shown words in block letters that are colored red, blue, green, or yellow. But here’s the rub. Sometimes the word “red” is colored green. Or the word “yellow” is shown in blue. You have to press a button stating the correct color. Reading is so deeply engrained in our brains that it will take you a little bit longer to override the automatic reading of a word like “red” and press a button that says “green.”*

Sixteen people, half of them highly hypnotizable and half of them resistant, came into Raz’s lab. (The purpose of the study, they were told, was to investigate the effects of suggestion on cognitive performance.) After each person underwent a hypnotic induction, Raz gave them these instructions:

Very soon you will be playing a computer game inside a brain scanner. Every time you hear my voice over the intercom, you will immediately realize that meaningless symbols are going to appear in the middle of the screen. They will feel like characters in a foreign language that you do not know, and you will not attempt to attribute any meaning to them. This gibberish will be printed in one of four ink colors: red, blue, green, or yellow. Although you will only attend to color, you will see all the scrambled signs crisply. Your job is to quickly and accurately depress the key that corresponds to the color shown. You can play this game effortlessly. As soon as the scanning noise stops, you will relax back to your regular reading self.

Raz then ended the hypnosis session, leaving each person with what is called a posthypnotic suggestion—an instruction to carry out an action while not hypnotized. Days later, they entered the brain scanner.

In highly hypnotizables, when the instruction came over the intercom, the Stroop effect was obliterated, Raz said. They saw English words as gibberish and named colors instantly. But those who were resistant to hypnosis could not override the conflict, he said. The Stroop effect prevailed, rendering them significantly slower in naming the colors. When the brain scans of the two groups were compared, a distinct pattern appeared. In the hypnotizables, Raz found, the visual area of the brain that usually decodes written words did not become active. And a region in the front of the brain that usually detects conflict was similarly dampened. Top-down processes overrode circuits devoted to reading and detecting conflict. Most of the time people see what they expect to see and believe what they already believe—unless hypnosis trips up their brain circuitry. Most of the time, bottom-up information matches top-down expectation, but hypnosis creates a mismatch. You imagine something different, so it is different.

The top-down nature of human cognition goes far to explain not only hypnosis but also the extraordinary powers of placebos (a sugar pill will make you feel better), nocebos (a witch doctor can make you ill), talk therapy, meditation, and magical stagecraft. We are not saying that hypnosis can cure your cancer, but these effects all demonstrate that suggestion can physically alter brain function.[1050 words]

source:
http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/illusion-chasers/2013/07/29/hypnosis-reviewed/


发表于 2014-7-21 23:22:58 | 显示全部楼层
沙发~~~~~~~~~~

T2 2:19
Hypnosiser use PHA to let people forget a certain memory. He can cancle PHA, then the memory is back.
This is domonstrated by a study.
T3 1:51
PHA has some similarities with functional amnesia.
The scientists did an experiment to understand the underlying process of these 2 things.
T4 3:39
In test 1, PHA group can't answer the question as good as non-PHA group.
In test2 , two groups are the same.
This experiments show that PHA do has an effect on human's memory.
The brain areas correspond differently when people are in PHA.
2 possibilies to explain PHA are ruled out.
T5 1:26
two contributions:
1.demonstrates that PHA has effect on brain activity.
2. show the underlying process.
How the machine decide what to surpress.
发表于 2014-7-21 23:26:44 | 显示全部楼层
板凳~谢谢cherry~~


Hypnosis and PHA.
Finding--PHA leads to temporate forget,the information is still stored safely in the memory.
PHA can becomes a good tool for research.
____________________
People with PHA may not remember a particular part of memeory, but can unconciously reveal that such information didn't lose in their brain.
PHA and functional amnesia.The experiment.
____________________
1
PHA not cancelled,PHA group remember less details than non PHA group.
PHA cancelled,PHA group remember as many details as non PHA group.
2
PHA may relate to brain activation(from the scan of fMRI)
3
two possibilites--can be ruled out.
A--PHA group originally has low brain activation./they only show low brain activation when they can not recall the details.
B--low activation means complete forget./PHA group shows normal activation when PHA is cancelled.
___________________
Significance:
1 hynopsis is real and can effect brain activity.
2 specify underlying brain processes.
3 paradox needs to be sovled.
__________________
4 suppression mechanism of PHA.
5 implicit and explicit memory.
____________________
Hypnosis works.
The experiment.
People who were hypnotizable can select the color instantly,they see the English words as gibberish,the parts of brain which controls reading were not active.
People who were resistant to hypnosis were influenced by reading parts of the brain and could not figure out the color immidiately.
Hypnosis can give brain suggestions.Significance.
发表于 2014-7-21 23:37:41 | 显示全部楼层
地板~~~~~~~~

Speaker: Falling into a hypnotic in the surgery can be helpful to patients.It can help people have less pain, nausea, fatigue and emotional stress.

01:22
A new study shows that PHA actually influences brain activity associated with memory.High hypnotizable people with PHA typically show impaired explicit memory.

01:17
PHA and functional amnesia share several similar features,which is helpful to scientists' research.Scientists want to know the underlying processes they share in the brain.

02:09
The experiment found that PHA temporarily disrupted some people’s ability to recall the past and PHA was associated with a specific pattern of brain activation.

01:00
The study demonstrates that hypnotic suggestions influence brain activity, not just behavior and experience and specify the underlying brain processes.

01:08
The neural underpinnings of PHA will be even clearer when we incorporate its most important aspect in imaging studies.

03:57
A discussion abbout the potential for hypnosis to provide insights into brain mechanisms involved in attention, motor control, pain perception, beliefs and volition and also to produce informative analogues of clinical conditions.Hypnosis  can alter neural circuits involved in perception and decision making, changing what people see, hear, feel, and believe to be true.
An experiment about color and hypnosis made by Raz3
All these experoment and effect demonstrate that hypnosis suggestion can physically alter brain function.
发表于 2014-7-21 23:49:11 | 显示全部楼层
thx LZ~~~~
Speaker:
hypnosis can reduce patients' pain before operation, and thus save some unnecessary costs.
Time2: 1'38"
hypnosis can cause temporally memory lose through DHP. But this process can be reverse, which means, the lose memory can get back. The whole thing is a worth study.
Time3: 1'20"
Hypnosis and functional amnesia share much in common. But in DHP, people can still memorize implicit evidence. Therefore, scientists decided to find out what is the difference between the two in terms of brain activity. They did a research.
Time4: 2'21"
Generally, people in the PHA group can remember more details than others. But, they showed normal activation—just as those in the non-PHA group did—as soon as the suggestion was cancelled.
Time5: 1'33"
hypnosis' effect is real, just as some scientists mentioned before. But there is a paradox needs to be resolve.
Time6: 1'20"
the suppression mechanism in PHA relates to the vast array of forgetting in the laboratory and in the world
the differences between implicit and explicit memory
Obstacle: 3'59"
Hypnosis is involved in cognitive neuroscience. An experiment. Hypnosis's function: trips up brain circuitry by creating  a dismatch.
发表于 2014-7-22 02:17:38 | 显示全部楼层
1:17,1:19,2:32,1:22,1:12,4:30
发表于 2014-7-22 07:58:04 | 显示全部楼层
感谢Cherry妹纸~占~~
————感谢!!!嘿~你的作业~不,是你的作业~( ̄_, ̄ ) ~~~#作业天天见~~#~~~进击的阅读小分队~~~\(^o^)/~——————————————————
[speaker]
Researches say accepting hypnosis before getting surgery can lead to less pain and time for that the patient focus so deeply on the "special space" that they don't even feel the pain.The hypnosis also cost less money meanwhile.  
[speed]
2'36
Hyposis,which lead to posthypnotic amnesia,can manage both implicit and explicit memory of the high hypnotizable people by simple order.And that kind of memory dissociation is reversible----when the hypnotized person receives a "cancellation",his memory come back.That phenomenon will be useful for research.
2'29
Those who suffer functional amnesia that will recover those unhappy memory as suddenly as they lost them.By contrast,PHA is more controllable.No matter the PHA group or the non-PHA group forget what they are hypnotized to and remember when they heard the cancel cue.
2'45
The PHA group forgot more details than the non-PHA group,but they recovered as much as the non-PHA group when they received cancellation.What's more,although the PHA group can remember the specific of the movie,they do remember the context when they are watching movie.
1'50
The hypnosis do influence brain activity,not just behavior and experience.But how the suppression process work specifically and rapidly still veiled to scientists.
2'11
The study has far way to go.Questions about how the suppression system identify different level of consciousness and adapted strategies,and how the implicit memory works in the hypnosis.
[obstacle]
4'13
main idea:Hypnosis can be used as a psychological treatments and an investigative tool in cognitive neuroscience.Hypnosis creates a mismatch from the bottom-up information to the top-down expectation,so you can see what you imagine,which can be used as a placebos or nocebos that affect your therapy.  
发表于 2014-7-22 08:31:21 | 显示全部楼层
Time 2 1’13’’
hypnosis influence brain and memory. This not means forget or poor encode but stop receive the message that can restore in the memory
Time 3 1’50’’
Define functional amnesia and do a study to identify between PHA and functional amnesia
Time 4 3’09’’
The result of the research shows that hypnosis influence brain activation.
Time 5 1’33’’
Hypnosis is real but brain can suppress several information.
Time 6 1’37’’
We should do more to recognize the suppression mechanism.
The study shows dissociation between implicit and explicit memory

Obstacle
Hypnosis is magic for it can make you feel like what you think in mind.
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