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转自:http://page.renren.com/601463889/note/866062046
前言:上次我们分析了新Argument中一类instruction(evaluate类)的写作方法,很多同学表示希望我们能把所有的instruction都讲述一遍,现在我们就跟大家分享一种比较少见、但很重要的instruction:Alternative explanation。
在新GRE Argument的茫茫174道题库当中,出现了一类前所未有的instruction(我们姑且称之为“Alternative explanation类”):
Write a response in which you discuss one or more alternative explanations that could rival the proposed explanation and explain how your explanation(s) can plausibly account for the facts presented in the argument.
意译过来就是:针对题目中给描绘的现象,请提出一种或更多的理论假说(这些假说能够和作者给出的理论相抗衡),并阐明它们如何能解释题中的现象。
虽然这类型instruction的数目不多,仅为10道,但却非常值得重视。究其原因还是它们需要用一种全新的、不同于老G挑错找茬的视角和思维方式。我们在后面会以新Argument中最难的题目之一——Argument 2为例,给出我们的范文,借此跟大家探讨一下这类instruction的理解和处理方法。
首先我们把这类instruction的核心思想和老G的思维方式,以及上一次提到的evaluate类的视角做个比较。
老Argument的整个基调是:作者的论证不好。因此为了证明这一点,我们需要找出作者的证据有哪些问题(调查数据不可靠等),犯了哪些逻辑错误(前后故因果等),是不是没有考虑全其他因素(未考虑他因以及未考虑其他建议等)。总之是一种比较aggressive的approach,而且是result-oriented(结果导向型)。
新Argument中evaluate类的基调是:作者论证得好不好我们不知道,但是我们清楚还需要什么证据来判断(或评估)作者的逻辑。可见整个立场从原来的敌对变成了中立:如果evidence支持,我们就支持(原文被增强);如果evidence不支持,我们就不支持(原文被削弱),而且文章也成了evidence-oriented(证据导向型)。
而这个Alternative explanation类的instruction则把上面的敌意进一步消除了:作者的解释对不对、合不合理我们根本不care,我们也不关心需要什么证据来证明或证伪——我们只想知道还有什么其他的可能性。换句话说,这时候已经完全不用考虑作者的结论是不是正确了(当然是有可能正确、也有可能不正确的),我们只要找到其他合理的解释就好,文章是explanation-oriented(解释导向型)。
再强调一遍,Alternative explanation并没有要求讨论作者前面的解释是否可靠,相反它要求的是在知道前面一系列的facts(如第一胎的猴子cortisol高)的情况下,如何用其他的、不同于题目给出的理论(即birth effect影响stimulation)来解释这些facts,并论述理由。当然,严格来说关于fact本身也是可以用explanation来分析的,比如统计数据可以说另一种解释就是:这只是偶然事件,或者统计过程被操纵了等等,但我们并不建议这样做。最理想的状况应该是在不否认fact本身可靠性的情况下,用一个理论一次性解释所有的现象。
我们想借用一个比较粗糙(这么说是因为可以我们给出的解释也不一定完美,希望大家海涵)的例子来具体说明这个instruction怎么理解:
进入6月以来最近某种碳酸饮料的销量迅速上升(事实),通过调查我们发现,消费者对于价格的满意度达到了95%(换句话说95%的买家认为这个价格很合理,第二个事实),因此我们可以认为:价格是我们产品最大的优势,它导致了销售量迅速上升(一种解释)。
如果是基于老G或者evaluate类的视角会怎么说?95%的满意度是不是可靠?价格相比以前是怎样的?有没有其他的原因?但现在,前两者我们都不用考虑了,而直接跨入“有没有其他的原因”这一点,讨论新的解释。
首先看在不批驳这两个facts的情况下能不能找出新的解释。销量的迅速上升可以解释为夏天到了,天气变热,于是大家对于饮料的需求上升了,一方面这解释了销量的增长,另一方面来说,可以认为大家对于饮料所愿意支付的价格上升了(本质就是经济学当中的支付意愿),因而大家会认为现在的价格(假设它一直不变)很合理。注意这种解释切合了原文当中的次要fact(进入六月这一点)。
还可以解释说销量上升就是广告打得好,这种情况下可能满意度的问题不能直接解释,只能攻击了(即用一种解释来说明它的错误)。例如说这个统计结果可以由“自由市场下,买饮料的人的支付意愿总是大于商品的价格(否则就不会买了)”这样一个经济学理论来解释,因此样本是一个完全失真的,但相比之下前面的解释一气呵成,更加自然。
在说完了这样一个简单的例子之后,让我们来看Argument 2,希望借助它来帮助大家理解这类Argument的写作方法:
The following appeared as part of a letter to the editor of a scientific journal.
"A recent study of eighteen rhesus monkeys provides clues as to the effects of birth order on an individual's levels of stimulation. The study showed that in stimulating situations (such as an encounter with an unfamiliar monkey), firstborn infant monkeys produce up to twice as much of the hormone cortisol, which primes the body for increased activity levels, as do their younger siblings. Firstborn humans also produce relatively high levels of cortisol in stimulating situations (such as the return of a parent after an absence). The study also found that during pregnancy, first-time mother monkeys had higher levels of cortisol than did those who had had several offspring."
Write a response in which you discuss one or more alternative explanations that could rival the proposed explanation and explain how your explanation(s) can plausibly account for the facts presented in the argument.
先是一些必要的分析。这篇文章比较tricky的地方在于,它提到了三个现象(第一胎猴子cortisol高、第一胎婴儿cortisol高、第一次怀孕的母亲cortisol也高),但实际上作者的解释(birth order影响stimulation)只是针对第一、第二点,而第三点——第一次怀孕母亲的cortisol水平高并不是作者意图解释的(毕竟它和birth order影响刺激水平显然是说的两回事,对象完全不一样)。试想刚刚那个例子,进入六月这是一个事实,但是我们并没有想要用任何东西来解释——因为它不需要解释。换句话说,站在作者的立场来看,母亲的cortisol水平这是一个无关紧要的fact,是和birth order无关的;真正能用birth order来解释的是第一胎猴子和第一胎婴儿的cortisol水平。
这样我们相当于重新认识了三个facts对于作者的用途,前两个facts是用于激发explanation的,后一个fact没有作用,只是实验中发现的其他结果随意报道一下;但站在我们的立场来看,第三个fact恰好提供了一种新的explanation:stimulation本质上是和母亲的激素水平相关的(而只不过恰好第一次怀孕的母亲cortisol水平高,所以第一胎的cortisol水平也高,和birth order完全是个coincidence)。下面就是正文:
(539 words)
In this letter to the editor of a scientific journal, the author quotes a recent study of eighteen rhesus monkeys, in which firstborn infant monkeys are found to produce up to twice as much of the hormone cortisol as do their younger siblings in stimulating situations. In addition, he mentions the discovery of some previous studies showing that firstborn humans also produce relatively high levels of cortisol in stimulating environments. Since cortisol is known to prime the body for increased activity levels, the author therefore suggests that the differences in the levels of stimulation exhibited in those studies can be explained by the differences in birth order. In other words, birth order may have some profound effects on an individual’s levels of stimulation. Admittedly, such an explanation is logically acceptable (if we assume that all the studies are valid), but there are at least two alternative explanations that could also account for the discoveries in the studies and rival the one endorsed by the author.
The first competing explanation, which I would like to call the “inheritance hypothesis”, is that the level of stimulation of an infant monkey or a human baby is determined by and positively correlated with the cortisol concentration of its or his biological mother during pregnancy. Specifically, the maternal cortisol level during pregnancy may have predetermined the maximum concentration of cortisol an infant could possibly produce in his entire life. This hypothesis arises intuitively from the fact that a fetus in the womb acquires nutrients and other substances, including some hormones, directly from his mother. As the author reveals in the same letter, the study of rhesus monkeys also found that first-time mother monkeys had a higher level of cortisol during pregnancy than did those who had already had several offspring, which could serve as a compelling piece of evidence to support this hypothesis. Firstborn infants, therefore, might be able to show a higher level of stimulation merely because of the higher level of cortisol of their mothers during pregnancy, while the correlation between the birth order and the levels of stimulation is completely coincidental in this scenario.
Equally possible is the explanation based on the age of infants, or the “age hypothesis”, which attributes the higher levels of cortisol to the older age of firstborn monkey or infants when the studies were conducted. Theoretically speaking, as an infant grows, his physical body will gradually develop and eventually mature. Such a developmental process can be reflected by the level of stimulation or the concentration of cortisol. To specify, the older an infant is, the higher amount of cortisol he may be able to produce, which means that he can exhibit a higher level of stimulation. In this way, the observed higher level of cortisol of firstborn infants can be properly explained by age, since they are apparently older than their siblings in the experiments.
To summarize, besides the possible explanation offered by the author, there exist at least two competing hypotheses that could account for the facts presented in his letter. Given the limited amount of information provided by the author, however, we are not able to judge which one is better or more credible. It would require more evidence to identify the best explanation(s).
在具体写作当中,我们建议分成若干个段落,第一段把facts和作者的解释复述一遍;之后的第二、第三再来提出我们的alternative explanation。最后一段和往常一样需要总结,但是这里请注意,我们并没有说哪种观点更好,而是说根据目前的证据我们无法判断孰优孰劣;要确定谁正确,还需要更多的信息(至于是什么我们也不用细究)。
我们再继续介绍一下我们推荐的段内逻辑布局(或者说逻辑模板),首先第一句话提出alternative explanation是什么,然后接下来的几句话具体描述一些可能的机理和细节(如第二段specifically后面的内容);随后讨论这个explanation为是如何来解释题目当中描述的现象的,中间还可以穿插一些这个explanation是如何想到的(arise intuitively from ...)以及结合题目当中已知信息的分析。
以上我们通过与其他instruction的对比、一个假想的case和新G当中的Argument 2探讨了Alternative explanation类文章的审题和写作谋略。需要反复强调的是,这种explanation不用再寻找逻辑错误了,因为整个instruction就没有要求我们挑错。如果我们还是像老G那样对一些调查上和论证上的细节纠缠不休,反而会让自己无比被动。
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