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Argue之第一宗罪---调查类问题（Survey）

第一类：调查或统计的程序性问题（Procedure）

(1) 选择性样本（Selective sample）

In the … place, the author provides no evidence to support the claim that … as a whole …. The example cited, while

suggestive of these trends, is insufficient to warrant their truth because there is no reason to believe that the data drawn

from this …is representative of the entire country. For example, if …, it would clearly be unrepresentative. The reason for

this is obvious. …

(2) 样本的数目及代表性问题（Quantity of the sample. Is the sample large enough to be representative?）

In the … place, the conclusion that … is based on too small a sample to be reliable. The only evidence offered in support

of this conclusion is the fact that A …. Unless it can be shown that A is typical of all …, the fact that … is no ground

for concluding that all ….

(3) 调查对象是否能够坦诚

In the … place, we are not informed whether survey responses were anonymous or even confidential. If they were not, then

respondents might have provided responses that they believed …, regardless of whether the responses were truthful. In this

case, the survey results would be unreliable for the purpose of drawing any conclusion about …, let alone about ….

(4) 调查对象是否被暗示或误导了（Loaded questions?）

In the … place, we are not informed whether the survey required that respondents choose … between alternatives. If it did,

then the results might distort … of the respondents, who might very well prefer a … choice not provided for in the survey.

第二类：调查的结果是否被正确表述和使用（Results of the survey）：

(1) 统计数据是否被精确表述（Are the statistics misleadingly vague?）

在职者类问题可以从三个方面着手：论者所说好的东西未必是好的，所说不好的未必是不好的；
                                忽略了其他指标（GDP capital、deficit、welfare…）；
                                忽略了其他原因（National Economic Climate、前任政策得力）。

模版：
In the … place, the author are meant to strengthen his allegation by using some statistics. But these statistics are vague

and oversimplified, and thus may distort … overall … picture. For example, …. Moreover, …. Finally, the survey/poll

indicates that …, but fails to indicate ….

(2) 回应者是否具有代表性（Respondents）

In the … place, there is probable problem of biasness in the survey. Perhaps … who are interested in … were more likely

than other … to respond to the questionnaire---possibly because they found the questionnaire more interesting. Or perhaps a

large number of respondents pretended to be interested in … issues because of some wrongful reasons. In either event, the

survey results would be virtually useless in drawing reliable conclusion about ….

(3) 调查是否具有时效性（When was the survey conducted?）

In the … place, the editorial/article/analysis neglects to indicate how recently the survey was actually conducted. When

samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the

generalization they are used to support, so that historical changes will not invalidate the generalization. All we know in

this editorial/article/analysis is that the survey was …. The less recent the survey itself, the less reliable the results

to indicate ….   

第二宗罪---充分条件与必要条件（Sufficient Evidence and Necessary condition）

第一类：充分性

In the … place, the author assumes that A is all that reuired for B. While A is an important element in determining B, it is

hardly the only element required. Other factors are equally important. In the case of …， factors such as … play a

significant role in determining …

第二类：必要性

In the … place, the author's claim that in order to …, A should … rests on the assumption that there are no feasible

alternative means of achieving this end. Yet the author fails to substantiate this assumption. Common sense tells us that

there are a group of other ways …. Perhaps one of those ways would be more effictive than the proposed plan--in which case,

the proposal would not seem compelling at all.

第三类：充要条件

第三宗罪---因果关系存在的论据不正确或不充分即非必然因果关系（Non-causal relationship）

第一类：因果两件事不存在任何推理关系（Non sequitur）

第二类：将简单的相关混淆为因果（Confuse mere correlation with causal relationship）

1. 先后发生不必然是因果关系（after this, therefore because of this）

2. 同时发生也不必然是因果关系（Concurrence）

In the … place, the author's reasoning to the problem rests on the claim that A is the cause of B. However, the evidence

offered is insufficient to support this claim. A mere positive correlation between A and B doesn't necessarily prove a causal

relationship, in addition, all other prospective causes of B must be ruled out. As it stands, the author's solution to the

problem is based on an oversimplified analysis of the issue.

3. 忽略他因（Ignoring other possible causes）

In the … place, the author fails to consider other possible reasons why …. Perhaps …, or perhaps …, or perhaps ….

Reasons such as these would help to explain why …. The author's failure to investigate or even consider other possible

explanations for … renders the conclusion based upon them highly suspect.

第三类：因果倒置（Confuse the cause and the effect）

In the … place, it is possible that … has confused cause with effect respecting …. Perhaps … was a response to …. Since

… has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that … is completely unwarranted.

Argue之第四宗罪---范围变化类错误（Changing Scope Fallacies）

第一类：差异概念（Different concepts）

In the … place, we must clarify the meaning of the nebulous(模糊的，云雾状的) concept "…." If the term is synonymous with

…, then the statistics cited would strongly support the argument. But, normally …; … also …. Thus, for the speaker the

term "…" must essentially carry the meaning as "…."

第二类：范围变大的问题---草率推广/急于概括/以个体概括整体（What is true for a member is also true for the group--Hasty
generalization）

In the … place, a most egregious（异乎寻常的，过分的） reasoning error in the argument is the author's use of evidence

pertaining to … in this region as the basis for a generalization about all …. The underlying assumption operative in this

inference is that … in this region are representative of all …. No evidence is offered to support this gratuitous（无理由的

） assumption.

第三类：范围缩小的问题---由整体推个体/整体到部分的错误演绎（What is true for the group is also trur for each group member）

Argue之第五宗罪---外推错误（All things remain unchanged over time.）

第一类：过去的状况在现在和将来都不变（Past Conditions Remain Unchanged in the Present and Future）/第二类：现在的状况在将来都

不变（Present Conditions Will Remain Unchanged into the Future）

In the … place, with respect to the argument's penultimate/third/forth/mid-conclusion--that …--the author assumes that in

the future, … will continue to …. However, what is historically/presently true is insufficient evidence itself to convince

me that this trend will continue. Moreover, should this trend actually reverse, then strategy adopted accroding to the

original trend may result in severely bad consequence, which might very well have a negative impact on ….

Argue之第六宗罪---比较类错误（Analogy, Comparison, and Variation）

第一类：错误比较（False Analogy）

In the … place, the argument also commits a fallacy named false analogy. The argument rests on the assumption that A is

analogous to B in all respects, and the author assumes without justification that all things are equal. There is, however, no

guarantee that this is the case. Nor does the author cite any evidence to support this assumption. Lacking this assumption,

the conclusion that … is entirely unfounded. In fact, it is highly doubtful that the facts drawn from B are applicable to A.

Differences between A and B clearly outweigh the similarities, thus making the analogy highly less than valid. For example,

… all affect … but are virtually absent in …. Problems such as these might present insurmountable obstacles that prevent

… in the future.

第二类：不完整比较或选择性比较（Incomplete or selective comparison）

In the … place, the assumption here is that …. However, we are not given enough information about the study to be sure that

this comparison is credible. For example, …; it only reports that …. If …, then no basis exists for comparing …. In

addition, the article does not indicate whether …. If not, then again no basis exsits for the comparison.

Argue之第七宗罪---非此即彼类错误（False dilemma）

In the … place, the author assumes that … are mutually exclusive alternatives. However, the author provides no reason for

imposing an either/or choice. … both … might produce better results. In addition, if the author is incorrect in the

assumption that … are only possible causes of the problems, then the most effective solution might include a complex of

policy changes--for example, …….

Argue之开头段

The author of this arguement claims that …. The basis for this reasoning is that …. The arguer further recommends that ….

An additional reason given in support of this recommendaton is that …. At first glance, the author's argument appears to be

somewhat convincing, but close scrutiny reveals that the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what

the arguer maintains.

Argue之结尾段：

In conlusion, the author fails to substantiate his claim that … because he commits the above mentioned logical mistakes and

fails to consider the whole situation comprehensively. To strengthen the argument, the author must convince us that ….

Finally, to better evaluate the author's claim we would need more information ….

Issue模版：

Lately there is a disputation over whether …. Some people contend that …, while other people claim that ….
In fact, the issue of whether … is a perplexing and debatable one. Whether one option/opinion has advantage over the other probably rests on the concrete circumstance. The complex nature of the above issue necessitates a case-to-case anatomy.
In the following analysis, I would like to bring forward evidence favoring the former one and rebutting the latter one.

In the first place, the salient reason that can be displayed to substantiate my viewpoint is that …. An typical(表明是具有代表性的例子) example can be found in the case that …. Under this circumstance, it is evident that ….

In the second place, there is another reason for me to choose the former statement/consider the latter statement to be wrong. The reason is not far to seek: …. To illustrate, consider(suppose) ….

Admittedly, it may be de facto truth that … in some conditions. However, this fact alone does not necessarily constitute a strong support to …. Actually, these cases are uncommon and therefore are too specific and too deficient to strengthen the view that …. Others might argue that …. However, …. When the advantages and disadvantages of X and Y are throughly contemplated, the most persuasive conclusion is unmistakably that ….

To sum up, due to the above mentioned reasons, which always intertwine to form an organic whole and thus become more convincing, we may safely arrive at the conclusion that ……. Although it may be true that …，… is more ….

最后一个：

逻辑错误的攻击方法：

无据攻击法：
（1）提出作者的一个假设；
（2）论证本身没有提供证据；
（3）所以站不住脚。

模版：

In the … place, the author assumes that ….

However, no evidence is offered to support this assumption.

Lacking evidence that links A to B, it is opinionated to suggest that ….